ittlteSt' 


o*  Forward  Mission 


jk^ 


OURSES 


*     DEC  15  1906      *: 


BV  3265 

.T5 

1906 

Thoburn, 

J. 

M. 

1836- 

1922. 

The  Christian 

conquG 

St  of 

India 

Bishop  James  M.  Thobum 


FORWARD    MISSION   STUDY   COURSES 

EDITED  UNDER  THE  AUSPICES  OF 
THE  YOUNG  PEOPLE'S  MISSIONARY  MOVEMENT 


THE  CHRISTIAN 
CONQUEST  OF  INDIA 


By       V'" 
BISHOP    JAMES  M.  THOBURN 

h'orly-six  Years  a  Missionary  in  India 


Fifil  Edition 
Se!\>enly-five  Thousand 


Young    People's    Missionary    Movement 
New  York      -     -     -      Toronto 


Copyright,  1906 

Young  Peopue's  Missionary  Movement 

New  York 


TO  THE  YOUNG  MEN  AND  YOUNG  WOMEN 

OF    CHRISTENDOM 

URGING  THEM    TO    IMMEDIATE  COOPERATION 

IN  THE 

SOCIAL  AND  SPIRITUAL  REGENERATION 

OF 

INDIA'S  MILLIONS 


PREFACE 


The  task  of  writing  this  book  was  undertaken 
at  the  urgent  request  of  leading  members  of  the 
YoTing  People's  Missionary  Movement.  The 
writer  had  spent  many  years  in  India  and  had 
acquired  a  personal  knowledge  of  missionary 
work  in  nearly  all  its  phases,  but  yet  did  not  at 
first  sufficiently  appreciate  the  difficulties  con- 
nected with  the  work  which  was  committed  to 
him.  The  manuscript  of  this  book  when  com- 
pleted was  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  Editorial 
Committee  for  revision,  and  especially  to  prepare 
it  for  the  use  of  mission  study  classes.  This  Com- 
mittee has  made  important  changes  in  some  parts 
of  the  work,  both  by  way  of  addition  in  some 
places,  and  omission  in  others.  It  was  also  found 
necessary  to  change  the  plan  to  some  extent  in 
order  to  make  the  book  better  serve  its  purpose  as 
a  text-book  for  students. 

India  contains  about  one  fifth  of  the  human 
race,  and  missionary  work  carried  on  in  such  a 
vast  empire,  and  directed  by  the  leading  Churches 
of  the  Protestant  world  leads  the  student  into 
fields  of  observation  and  inquiry  hardly  second  to 
any  others  in  the  world.  To  attempt  to  write  in 
a  few  brief  chapters  a  sketch  of  a  region  w^hich 
practically  constitutes  a  world  in  itself,  and  to 


do  this  from  a  missionary  view-point  and  in  a 
form  suitable  for  young  readers,  must  inevitably 
prove  to  be  a  most  perplexing  task. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  remark  that  no  at>- 
tempt  has  been  made  in  the  following  pages  to 
present  to  the  reader  a  full  and  exhaustive  ac- 
count of  India  and  its  people  or  of  the  mission- 
ary work,  past  or  present,  for  which  the  country 
has  become  noted.  The  commission  given  to  the 
writer  did  not  imply  an  ideal  of  this  kind.  If 
the  book  proves  useful  in  creating  an  intelligent 
interest  in  India  and  its  teeming  millions,  and  if, 
in  addition  to  this,  it  enables  the  young  people  to 
realize  that  they  are  practically  in  touch  with 
these  millions,  it  will  accomplish  the  end  which 
the  writer  had  in  view. 

J.  M.  Thoburn. 
Delaware,  Ohio,  May  26,  1906. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

Preface   v 

I.     The  Country   I 

II.     Invaders   and   Rulers 31 

III.  The  People   61 

IV.  The  Religions  91 

V.     Christian  Conquerors   131 

VI.     Missionary   Agencies    167 

VII.     Problems   201 

VIII.    Results    225 

Appendix  A — Chronological  Table    251 

Appendix  B — Bibliography     255 

Appendix  C — Rules   for   Pronunciation 265 

Appendix  D — Glossary    266 

Appendix  E — Statistics  of  Protestant  Missions....  271 

Appendix  F — Area    and    Population 273 

Appendix  G — Distribution    of    Christians    by    Race 

and  Denomination  274 

Appendix  H — Distribution  of  Population  According 

to  Religion  and  Education 275 

Appendix     I — Statistics    Concerning    Some    of   the 

Principal  Occupations    276 

Index    277 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

Bishop  James  M.  Thobiirn Frontispiece 

Asafnagar    Falls,    Ganges    Canal,    Illustrating 

Irrigation   Works    page  12 

Plowing  in  the  Punjab "  12 

Taj    Mahal,    Agra "  z6 

Great  Mosque,  Delhi "  36 

Public  Library,  Allahabad "  49 

Victoria  Railway  Station,  Bombay "  49 

Burmese  Coast  Village "  68 

Santal  Village  Courtyard "  68 

Brahman  Sub-judge  and  Family "  y;^ 

Karen  Family,   Burma "  7Z 

Map  Showing  the  Distribution  of  the  Popula- 
tion According  to  Religions  in  the  Prov- 
inces and  States "  92 

Hindu  Temple,  Madura "  98 

Buddhist  Temple,  Buddh-Gaya "  98 

Map     Showing     the     Principal     Races     and 

Religions    "  108 

Four  Indian  Deities "  114 

Manager     and     Priests     of     Hindu     Temple, 

Rameswaram    "  117 

Buddhist  Priest  Instructing  a  Class  of  Boys..  "  117 

Fakirs   "  121 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


Oldest  Syrian  Church  in  India  at  Kottayam.. 

Henry  Martyn's  Pagoda 

William    Carey 

Alexander  Duff 

Nagercoil  Church  

Vinton  Memorial  Church 

College  Hall  of  Madura  Mission 

Forman  Christian  College,  Lahore 

Young  Men's  Christian  Association  Building, 

Madras  

Isabella  Thoburn  College,  Lucknow 

Extremes  of  the  Caste  System 

Garo  Polygamous  Family 

Founders  of  National  Missionary  Society  of 

India   

Political    Map    of    India    Showing    Christian 

Mission    Stations 

Sketch  Maps  and  Charts 

'Railway  Map   

British  Provinces  and  Native  States 

Languages    of   India 

Missionary  Development,  Eastern  India.... 

Western  and  Southern  India 

Northern  India   


page  132 

"  132 

"  139 

"  139 

"  172 

"  172 

"  178 

"  178 

"      191 

"      191 

"      207 

207 

"      241 

End 

18 

47 

63 

144 

158 

160 


THE  COUNTRY 


CHAPTER    I 

THE  COUNTRY  ] 

IxDiA^  is  one  of  the  world's  greatest  empires.   Area  and  ; 

In  area  it  embraces  1,766,597  square  miles/     It  I 

extends  from  east  to  west  about  2,500  miles  and  j 

from   north   to   south   nearly   2,000   miles.      Its  1 

revenues  are  on  a  large  scale,  and  in  time  of  stress  j 

have  proved  as  elastic  as  the  average  revenues  of  ] 

European  nations  under  similar  conditions.     Its  ! 

army  is  large  and  always  prepared  for  possible  ; 

emergencies.      If    threatened    by    invasion,    the  J 

Indian  government,  aided  by  the  feudatory'  states,  1 

could  meet  the  invaders  on  the  frontier  with  an  | 

*When  the  first  Aryan  pioneers,  traveling  south- 
ward from  the  highlands  of  Central  Asia,  reached 
the  river  Indus,  which  was  probably  in  flood  at  the 
time,  they  named  it  "Sindhus,"  or  ocean,  and  very 
possibly  mistook  it  for  a  part  of  the  ocean  itself.  At 
a  later  period,  other  members  of  their  race,  coming 

from  what  is  now  called  Persia,  softened  the  sibilant  ; 
initial    into    an   h,   and    at   a   still    later    period  the 

Greeks   erased    the  first  letter   altogether   and   gave  ; 
the    river   the    illustrious   name    it    still    bears,    the 

Indus.    The  original  name  still  lives  in  the  province  ■ 

of  Sindh,  and  the  people  of  that  province  are  known  ; 

as  Sindhis.  i 

^Including  Assam  and  Burma,  which  are  integral  .\ 

parts  of  the  empire.  I 

^Semi-independent   native   states    governed    by    na- 
tive princes  under  the  advice  of  a  British  Resident  • 
whom  the  viceroy  stations  at  their  courts.  .j 
1  ' 


2 


The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 


army  of  370,000  men.  Its  vast  provinces  are 
threaded  with  railway  lines,  and  modern  improve- 
ments of  every  kind  keep  pace  with  the  general 
progress  of  the  country.  Legislative  bodies  share 
the  responsibility  of  administration,  both  in  the 
imperial  and  provincial  governments.  In  all  that 
pertains  to  industrial,  civil,  educational,  and  re- 
ligious progress,  a  steady  advance  can  be  noticed, 
and  the  future  of  this  great  empire  becomes  a 
subject  of  intense  interest  to  every  observing  stu- 
dent, and  especially  to  every  Christian  missionary. 
Population  The  population  of  the  empire  at  the  last  census 
in  1901  was  294,361,056,  equal  to  the  whole  of 
Europe,  less  Eussia,  and  over  three  and  one  half 
times  that  of  the  United  States.  If  account  be 
taken  of  the  normal  increase  of  population,  it 
may  be  accepted  as  reasonably  certain  that  at  the 
present  time  it  exceeds  300,000,000,  or  nearly 
one  fifth  of  the  human  race.  India  is  a  land  of 
imperial  proportions,  and  is  entitled  to  fair  con- 
sideration among  the  empires  of  the  world. 

Ninety  per  cent,  of  the  population  is  scattered 
in  villages.  The  census  counts  2,148  towns^  and 
728,605  villages.*  Calcutta,  Bombay,  and  Madras 
are  the  only  cities  with  more  than  500,000  inhabi- 
tants ;  whereas  in  the  United  States  there  are  six. 
In  the  entire  empire  there  are  only  twenty-six 

^A  town  is  incorporated,  with  a  magistrate  and 
petty   court. 

=^A  village  is  a  collection  of  houses,  not  incorpor- 
ated,  with   a  headman. 


Cities  and 
Villages 


The  CouDlry 


Density  of 
Population 


cities  of  more  than  100,000  inhabitants  each.  In 
the  United  States  and  Canada  there  are  thirty- 
seven.  About  twenty  per  cent,  of  the  population 
of  the  United  States  lives  in  cities  exceeding 
100,000  inhabitants,  while  in  India  only  two  per 
cent,  of  the  population  is  in  cities  of  more  than 
100,000  inhabitants. 

The  average  density  of  population  for  the 
entire  empire  is  167  per  square  mile.  The  popula- 
tion of  Belgium  is  three  and  one  half  times  as 
dense,  589  per  square  mile,  while  that  of  Ontario 
is  only  ten  persons  per  square  mile.  The  British 
provinces  are  twice  as  populous  as  the  native 
states,  and  the  increase  in  the  British  provinces 
has  been  nearly  five  per  cent.,  while  the  native 
states  have  decreased  5.47  per  cent,  in  population. 
The  most  populous  regions  are  the  Gangetic 
plain,  the  delta  of  Bengal,  and  the  coast  of  the  tri- 
angular southern  plateau,  while  the  most  sparsely 
settled  are  the  northwest  portions  and  the  coast  of 
Burma.  Arizona,  Idaho,  and  Montana  have  less 
than  two  persons  per  square  mile,  while  Baluchis- 
tan, the  most  thinly  settled,  has  eleven.  The  delta 
of  Bengal  has  552,  as  compared  with  the  407  per 
square  mile  in  Ehode  Island. 

The  geographical  position  of  India  can  be  seen   Geographical 
by  a  glance  at  any  map  of  Asia.     On  the  north 
it  seems  to  nestle  under  "the  roof  of  the  world," 
the  name  sometimes  given  to  the  vast  region  in 
central  Asia  which  is  buttressed  by  the  Hima- 


Position 


4  The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

lajas^  and  their  spurs,  and  by  other  ranges  on  the 
north,  east,  and  west.  On  the  west  its  shores  are 
washed  by  the  waters  of  the  Arabian  Sea,  and  on 
the  east  it  is  bounded  by  the  Chinese  Empire, 
Anam,  and  Siam.  On  the  northwest  its  historic 
boundary  has  been  the  Indus,  although  the  politi- 
cal boundary  has  often  been  pushed  southeast  by 
invaders  from  central  Asia,  or  again  northwest 
by  powerful  rulers  in  India.  Similar  changes  of 
boundary  have  taken  place  on  the  other  side  of 
India,  but  not  so  frequently,  nor  to  so  great  an 
extent.  At  the  present  time  the  boundary  of  the 
empire  embraces  Assam  and  Burma  on  the  east, 
and  extends  far  enough  beyond  the  Indus  on  the 
northwest  to  include  Baluchistan,  while  Afghan- 
istan is  held  in  the  position  of  a  subsidized  state.^ 
The  authority  of  the  Indian  government  is  para- 
mount up  to  the  boundary  line  of  Persia. 
Divisions  Writers  on  India  frequently  divide  the  country 
into  four  sections :  the  first  including  the  moun- 
tains of  the  Himalayan  range;  the  second,  the 
plains  of  northern  India ;  the  third,  the  table-land 
of  central  and  southern  India;  and  the  fourth, 
Burma.  These  first  three  divisions,  however,  are 
somewhat  arbitrary,  and  do  not  convey  a  very 
clear  idea  of  the  actual  configuration  of  the  coun- 

^The  word  Himalaya  means  in  Sanskrit  "the  abode 
of  snow." 

'The  British  government  pays  the  Ameer  of 
Afghanistan  a  subsidy  of  $600,000  per  annum  for  his 
friendship. 


The  Country  5 

tr}^  Immediately  south  of  the  suow-line  of  the 
Himalayas  is  a  belt  of  lower  mountains,  with  an 
average  width  of  perhaps  a  hundred  miles.  At  a 
distance  of  several  hundred  miles  from  the  moun- 
tains the  surface  begins  to  rise,  and  long  before  it 
reaches  the  Vindhya  mountains,  a  range  which 
crosses  India  from  east  to  west  at  about  the 
middle  of  the  country,  the  land  has  become  an 
elevated  plateau.  Immediately  south  of  this 
mountain  range  is  a  rich  valley  through  which  the 
Narbada  Eiver  flows  westward,  dividing  the 
greater  part  of  the  country  into  two  somewhat 
distinct  sections.  South  of  this  river  is  another 
range  of  mountains  called  the  Satpuras,  which 
forms  the  northern  boundary  of  a  triangular  pla- 
teau known  as  the  Deccan,  or  South  Country. 
This  plateau  has  an  average  elevation  of  about 
two  thousand  feet,  and  is  hemmed  in  on  the  west 
by  a  line  of  mountains  running  parallel  with  the 
ocean  from  northwest  to  southeast.  A  similar 
but  somewhat  lower  range  shuts  in  the  plateau 
on  the  eastern  side.  These  two  ranges  are  called 
respectively  the  Eastern  and  Western  Ghats,  the 
former  having  an  average  height  of  about  fifteen 
hundred  feet,  and  the  latter  of  about  three  thou- 
sand. Burma  consists  mainly  of  the  valley  and 
delta  of  the  Irawadi,  the  Yoma  ranges,  a  coast 
strip  along  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  and  a  wild  hill 
region  extending  east  and  northeast  of  the  Ira- 
wadi toward  the  Chinese  and  Tibet  frontiers. 


6  The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

Rivers  The  great  rivers  of  India  aj-e  chiefly  those 
which  have  their  sources  in  the  Himalayas.  It 
is  a  singular  fact  that  these  streams,  except  the 
Ganges,  take  their  rise,  not  in  India  proper,  but 
on  the  northern  side  of  the  Himalayas  in  Tibet. 
The  Brahmaputra  not  only  takes  its  rise  to  the 
northward  of  the  mountains,  but  for  the  greater 
part  of  its  course  flows  at  a  great  elevation  along 
a  valley  between  the  Himalayas  proper  and 
another  snowy  range  which  lies  to  the  north  in 
Tibet.  Of  all  these  rivers,  the  Indus,  Ganges,  and 
Brahmaputra  take  precedence.  The  Indus  is  a 
very  large  stream,  but  through  nearly  all  its  lower 
courses  it  flows  through  a  desert,  hence  it  is  only 
along  its  upper  course  near  the  mountains,  or  in- 
deed among  the  mountains,  that  the  tremendous 
volume  of  water  it  carries  into  the  sea  can  be 
appreciated  by  a  spectator.  The  Ganges  has 
many  tributaries ;  one  of  them,  indeed,  the  Gogra, 
is  larger  than  the  Ganges  itself,  and  hence  this 
river  carries  down  an  amazing  volume  of  water  to 
the  sea.  The  Mississippi,  when  its  banks  are  full, 
discharges  1,200,000  cubic  feet  of  water  per  sec- 
ond; the  Saint  Lawrence,  1,000,000;  the  Nile  only 
400,000 ;  the  Ganges,  1,800,000.  The  Brahmapu- 
tra is  unknown  to  India  until  it  suddenly  sweeps 
around  the  southeastern  base  of  the  Himalayas, 
and  bursts  forth  into  the  Assam  valley  in  all  its 
strength.  It  was  formerly  considered  larger  than 
the  Ganges,  but  it  has  been  ascertained  that  in 


The  Country  7 

the  rainy  season  its  discharge  per  second  is  only 
a  little  more  than  500,000  cubic  feet.  This,  how- 
ever, still  gives  it  a  prominent  place  among  the 
great  rivers  of  the  world.  Only  two  rivers  of  any 
size  flow  westward  into  the  ocean — the  Narbada, 
spoken  of  above,  and  the  Tapti,  which  flows  par- 
allel with  it  and  but  a  short  distance  from  it.  The 
Irawadi  breaks  through  the  eastern  Himalayas 
from  Tibet  and  flows  down  through  the  center  of 
Burma,  receiving  several  affluents  on  its  way. 
Three  other  rivers  of  considerable  size,  but  not  of 
great  importance,  discharge  their  waters  into  the 
Bay  of  Bengal — the  Godavari,  the  Kistna,  and  the 
Mahanadi. 

The  rivers  of  India  are  not  well  adapted  to  Adaptation  of 
steamer  traffic,  as  the  force  of  their  currents  and  Traffic 
the  treacherous  nature  of  the  sand  which  they  all 
bring  down  from  the  mountains  make  it  difficult 
for  steamers  to  ply  for  trade,  as  is  so  common  on 
North  American  rivers.  An  immense  traffic,  how- 
ever, is  carried  on  by  native  boats,  some  of  them 
of  considerable  size,  although  most  of  them  are 
very  small.  On  the  Ganges,  boats  may  be  seen 
constantly,  sometimes  carried  up  by  means  of 
clumsy  and  often  ragged  sails,  but  very  often 
slowly  dragged  by  the  boatman  walking  on  shore 
and  tugging  with  ropes.  The  downward  passage, 
of  course,  is  made  more  easily.  The  immense 
delta  of  the  Ganges  and  Brahmaputra — for  the 
two  rivers  unite  before  reaching  the  sea — is  made 


8 


The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 


Rivers  as 
Land-makers, 
Fertilizers, and 
Highways 


up  of  numberless  canals  and  estuaries,  on  which 
a  constant  traffic  is  maintained.  Some  idea  of 
the  vast  extent  and  activity  of  this  river  traffic 
can  be  formed  from  the  statement  that  at  the  city 
of  Patna  on  the  Ganges,  61,000  boats  have  been 
registered  as  having  passed  up  or  down  in  the 
course  of  a  single  year.  At  Hugli,  a  town  about 
twenty-five  miles  above  Calcutta,  124,000  boats  of 
all  kinds  and  sizes  passed  in  a  year.  The  river- 
borne  trade  of  the  city  of  Calcutta  amounts  to 
more  than  $100,000,000  a  year,  and  when  "it  is 
remembered  that  nearly  all  of  this  is  carried  on 
in  clumsy  native  boats,  some  idea  can  be  formed 
not  only  of  the  number  of  these  river  crafts,  but 
also  of  the  vast  number  of  boatmen  employed  in 
the  service. 

The  rivers  of  India  are  noted  perhaps  beyond 
those  of  any  other  part  of  the  world,  unless  it  be 
Africa,  for  the  amount  of  silt  which  they  carry 
down  to  the  sea.  If  it  be  true  that  the  Nile  has 
made  Egypt,  it  is  equally  true  that  the  Ganges 
has  made  Bengal,  while  every  river  flowing  into 
the  sea  has  in  like  manner  built  up  its  own  delta. 
The  Ganges  and  Brahmaputra  carry  down  more 
silt  than  the  Indus,  the  Brahmaputra  taking  the 
lead  in  this  respect.  It  has  been  estimated  that 
it  would  take  24,000  steamships,  each  of  14,000 
tons  burden,  to  carry  the  amount  of  deposit  which 
is  brought  down  by  the  Ganges  alone  during  the 
four  months  of  the  rainy  season.    The  mind  fails 


The  Country  9 

to  realize  how  vast  this  yearly  accumulation  must 
he  and  yet  it  is  not  perceptibly  noticed  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river.  It  is  true  that  thousands  of 
acres  are  thrown  up  each  year,  not  only  in  the 
delta,  but  at  many  points  in  the  upper  course  of 
the  stream ;  but  while  new  land  is  thus  constantly 
forming,  large  slices  of  cultivated  land  are  swept 
away  from  time  to  time,  so  that  the  poor  native 
does  not  notice  that  the  river  makes  much  amends 
for  the  loss  which  it  so  often  inflicts  upon  him. 
Nevertheless,  the  land  is  steadily  gaining  on  the 
ocean ;  and  as  the  silt  which  is  brought  down  is  of 
the  richest  possible  quality,  those  who  cultivate 
near  the  river  not  only  have  their  lands  fertilized 
by  the  deposits  left  by  the  floods,  but  also  at  times 
secure  new  fields  thrown  up  in  the  course  of  a 
few  weeks,  which  furnish  fruitful  farms  for  years 
to  come.  I  have  myself  seen  wheat  growing  rich 
and  green  on  fields  where  I  have  seen  the  water 
flowing  fifty  feet  deep  but  six  months  before.  The 
rivers  also  form  cheap  highways  for  carrying  the 
produce  of  the  country  to  the  towns  and  seaports, 
and  perform  an  invaluable  function  in  furnishing 
the  water  for  the  irrigation  schemes. 

Climate  conditions  in  India  are  to  a  very  great  Monsoons 
extent  dependent  upon  the  winds  known  as  "mon- 
soons" in  southern  Asia,  but  better  known  in 
other  parts  of  the  world  as  "trade  winds."  About 
six  weeks  after  the  sun  crosses  the  equator  in  its 
northward  course,  a  steady  and  sometimes  strong 


10  The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

wind  sets  in  from  the  southwest  and  continues 
with  slight  interruptions  for  three  or  four 
months,  and  again  when  the  sun  recrosses  the 
equator,  similar  conditions  prevail,  save  that  the 
direction  is  reversed;  instead  of  coming  from 
the  southwest  the  prevailing  winds  are  from 
the  northeast.  These  winds  are  of  the  utmost 
importance  to  India.  The  heated  air  rising  from 
the  ocean  carries  with  it  a  large  measure  of  mois- 
ture, and  when  it  reache's  the  somewhat  cooler 
atmosphere  farther  from  the  equator  this  mois- 
ture is  condensed  and  precipitated  as  rain  upon 
the  parched  and  thirsty  land,  a  process  as  beauti- 
ful as  it  is  wonderful. 
Destructive-  But  for  thcsc  mousoous  India  would  speedily 
soons  '  hecome  an  uninhabitable  waste,  and  yet  these 
messengers  of  blessing  are  sometimes  attended  by 
great  disasters,  and  followed  by  suffering  in  vari- 
ous forms.  The  typhoon  of  the  coast  of  China,  the 
cyclone  of  India,  and  the  hurricane  of  the  West 
Indies  are  practically  one  and  the  same  in  origin, 
character,  and  destructive  effect.  Some  twenty 
years  ago  a  strong  and  persistent  wind  drove  the 
watei  in  one  of  the  mouths  of  the  Brahmaputra 
backward  for  many  hours  until  it  stood  above  its 
normal  level.  When  a  sudden  change  of  the  wind 
released  this  mighty  mass,  and  the  swollen  flood 
swept  out  to  sea,  it  buried  a  large  island  with  its 
hundred  thousand  beneath  its  waves.  It  was  sub- 
stantially the  destruction  of  Pharaoh^s  host  re- 


The  Country  11  j 

peated  before  the  eyes  of  the  modern  world.    The  ] 
Bakarjang  cyclone  of  1876  drove  huge  waves  over 
the  large  islands,  and  in  a  few  hours  engulfed  j 
150,000  acres  of  land,  and  destroyed  2,000,000  ■ 
souls.     At  times  large  ships  have  been  swept  in-  j 
land  upon  the  crest  of  great  waves  and  deposited  j 
on  the  shore,  sometimes  at  a  distance  of  several  | 
miles  from  the  sea.  > 
The  average  annual  rainfall  varies  greatly  in  Rainfall  I 
the  different  parts  of  India.     At  the  stations  on  ' 
the  outer  ranges  of  the  Himalayas  it  reaches  a  ! 
point  which  in  North  America  would  be  consid-  i 
ered  very  excessive,  ranging  from   91   inches  at  i 
Naini  Tal  to  120  inches  at  Darjiling.     In  some  I 
parts  of  the  great  valley  of  the  Brahmaputra  the  I 
rainfall  is  the  heaviest  known  in  the  world.     At  i 
Cherra  Punji,  a  station  in  Assam,  the  average 
annual  rainfall  is  no  less  than  523  inches,  and  in  * 
1861  it  actually  rose  to  805  inches.     This,  how-  i 
ever,  is  exceptional.     In  Baluchistan  the  normal 
mean  rainfall  is  8.7  inches,  and  on  the  Burma 
coast  152.9  inches.    In  general,  rain  is  most  abun- 
dant on  the  coast  of  Burma,  along  the  Western  ; 
Ghats,  and  the  Brahmaputra  valley,  and  in  the 
eastern  sections  of  the  sub-Himalayas.  The  dryest 
portions  are  northwestern  India,  Gujarat,  and  the 
Deecan.    As  a  basis  of  comparison  it  may  be  noted  J 
that  the  rainfall  in  the  state  of  New  York  in  1905  | 
was  a  little  more  than  45  inches,  in  Ohio  slightly  I 
less  than  45  inches,  in  California  about  25  inches. 


12  The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 


and  Arizona  20  inches.  As  a  rnle  there  is  no 
want  of  moisture  in  India,  as  the  average  rain- 
fall is  considerably  in  excess  of  the  rainfall  in 
North  America,  but  instead  of  being  spread  all 
over  the  year  it  is  confined  to  a  few  months. 
Irrigation  The  cauals  of  British  India  are  far  more  widely 
extended  and  also  more  useful  than  is  commonly 
supposed.  At  a  time  when  so  much  attention  is 
being  given  to  the  irrigation  projects  in  the  arid 
sections  of  the  United  States,  the  reader  will  be 
interested  to  know  that  the  British  government 
has  been  the  chief  modern  pioneer  in  this  line  of 
work.  The  canals  in  India  have  an  aggregate 
length  of  "main  line''  of  14,438  miles,  with  29,- 
174  miles  of  smaller  distributing  channels.  More 
than  44,000,000  acres  of  land  are  irrigated  by 
canals,  mainly  in  Madras,  the  Punjab,  United 
Provinces,  and  Bengal,  and  the  work  of  extending 
the  system  is  going  on  vigorously.  The  govern- 
ment has  already  expended  over  $150,000,000  in 
constructing  these  canals,  employing  at  times  a 
large  number  of  famine  laborers  who  would  prob- 
ably have  starved.  This  great  work  is  largely  due 
to  a  distinguished  engineer,  the  late  Sir  A.  Cot- 
ton, who  adopted  the  theory  that  God  sends  as 
much  rain  as  is  needed,  but  would  have  man  care 
for  the  gift  which  his  bounty  provides. 
Drought  An  immense  amount  of  suffering  and  many 
deaths  are  caused  by  drought,  which  frequently 
occurs  in  the  sand  portions  of  the  Punjab,  large 


Asafnagar  Falls,  Ganges  Canal,  Illuslrallng  Irrigation  Works 


■.■„.>^-^»g^'e^.  ■^,. 


Plowing  in  the  Punjab 


The  Country  15 

sections  of  the  Deccan,  and  other  parts  of  the  em- 
pire, where  the  rainfall  is  not  abundant.     How- 
ever, the  shortage  of  rain  will  become  less  formid-  ^    j 
able  as  the  government  extends  its  system  of  irri-  | 
gation.    During  the  first  eighty  3^ears  of  the  nine-                           '| 
teenth    century,    18,000,000    people   perished    of  1 
famine.      In    1877,   5,000,000   of   the   people   of  j 
southern  India  starved  to  death.^     Cholera  is  also 
frequently  a  concomitant  of  the  terrible  famine^ 
and   various   sorts    of   fever   and    other   sickness  I 
usually  follow.     The  bubonic  plague,  largely  re-                             j 
suiting     from     insufficient     food,     caused     the                             ^ 
death  of  nearly  360,000  persons  between  1896  and 
1900. 

For  long  ages  India  has  been  famed  for  her  Goid^siiver, 
treasures  of  gold,  silver,  and  jewels,  but  as  a  mat- 
ter of  fact,  her  mines  are  few  in  number  and  not 
very  productive.  The  historic  treasures  of  India 
have  been  to  a  great  extent  the  product  of  military 
plunder.  In  fact,  the  same  remark  might  be 
made  with  regard  to  public  wealth  in  all  Asiatic 
lands  from  the  days  of  Croesus  to  the  present 
time.  The  immense  treasures  of  which  we 
read  in  history  and  story  are  partly  fabulous 
and  partly  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  success- 
ive conquerors  brought  them  from  other  lands  to 
India.  Diamond  mines  are  still  worked  in  south- 
ern India,  but  the  product  is  not  large.  European 
skill  and  energy  have  given  an  impetus  to  gold 

^Lill3%  India  and  its  Pro'blems,  287. 


and  Diamonds 


14  The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

mining  in  Mysore,  but  the  success  achieved  has 
been  only  fairly  satisfactory.  Last  census  imports 
of  treasures  were  two  and  one  half  times  exports. 

Coal  Coal  was  never  sought  for  until  its  necessity 
began  to  be  felt  a  few  years  ago.  As  the  various 
railway  lines  have  been  extended  into  different 
parts  of  the  country,  coal  has  been  discovered  here 
and  there,  and  its  production  has  steadily  in- 
creased, until  in  1903  it  reached  more  than  seven 
million  tons.  In  India,  as  in  all  lands,  this  spe- 
cies of  "black  diamond"  is  found  to  be  of  infi- 
nitely greater  value  than  any  deposit  of  real 
diamonds.  It  is  now  used  in  large  quantities  by 
all  the  manufacturing  establishments  in  the  cities, 
and  is  also  in  demand  in  seaport  towns  because  of 
the  increasing  number  of  steamers  which  frequent 
the  Indian  shores. 

Rice  In  Europe  and  America  the  impression  prevails 
very  generally  that  the  people  of  India  subsist 
almost  wholly  upon  rice,  but  this  is  a  great  mis- 
take, as  it  is  a  staple  food  for  only  one  third  of 
the  population.  Kice  is  produced  in  very  large 
quantities,  and  is  a  common  article  of  diet  along 
the  seashore  and  river  bottoms,  especially  in 
Burma,  but  the  greater  part  of  India  consists  of 
uplands  which  are  not  adapted  to  the  production 
of  rice.  Eice  is  cultivated  in  the  uplands  wherever 
favorable  conditions  can  be  found,  and  people  of 
all  races  are  not  only  willing,  but  eager  to  obtain 
it  whenever  possible. 


The  Country 


15 


Taking  the  empire  of  India  as  a  whole,  the  Miiiet 
most  common  article  of  diet  will  be  found  to  con- 
sist of  the  different  kinds  of  millet,  and  of  the 
grains  belonging  to  the  pea  family.  The  term 
millet  includes  a  large  variety  of  grains.  A  mis- 
sionary received  a  small  package  of  sorghum  seed 
from  the  United  States,  and  sowed  it  in  his  gar- 
den to  see  if  it  would  mature  successfully  in  the 
strange  soil  and  climate  of  an  Eastern  land.  The 
seed  germinated  and  developed  precisely  as  it 
would  have  done  in  Kansas,  but  the  natives 
watched  the  experiment  with  extreme  interest, 
and  recognizing  the  plant  as  a  species  of  their 
own  field  crop,  stole  a  part  of  the  seed  for  their 
own  use  and  in  a  few  years  the  improved  quality 
of  their  millet  began  to  attract  attention.  A 
dozen  varieties  of  this  grain  may  now  be  seen  in 
northern  India.  Other  crops  belonging  to  the  pea 
family  also  yield  bountiful  harvests. 

India  is  justly  famed  for  her  variety  of  tropical  Fruits 
fruits.  The  mango  is  to  the  people  of  India  what 
the  apple  is  to  the  American  people.  It  grows 
everywhere,  and  often  large  mango  trees  line  both 
sides  of  a  public  road,  or  occupy  waste  ground 
near  the  villages,  and  being  free  to  the  poor,  these 
become  a  great  boon  during  the  fruitage  season. 
The  banana  of  many  varieties  is  also  found  in  all 
parts  of  the  land,  and  its  fruit  is  usually  cheap. 
Oranges  of  fine  quality,  guavas  of  many  varieties, 
pineapples,  custard  apples,  loquats,  lemons,  and 


16  The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 


Forests 


limes  of  many  kinds,  and  in  the  extreme  south, 
breadfruit,  jack-fruit,  and  the  durian — the  last 
three  being  members  of  a  common  family — all 
claim  a  place  in  the  list  of  Indian  fruits. 

The  forest  products  of  India  include  almost 
everything  which  grows  in  the  tropical  world. 
The  teak  of  Burma  and  southern  India  has  become 
known  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  Among  the 
lower  ranges  of  the  Himalayas,  the  cedar  of  Leba- 
non maintains  the  renown  of  that  illustrious  mon- 
arch of  mountain  forests,  while  the  fir,  spruce,  and 
other  members  of  the  coniferous  family  are  also 
found,  although  in  the  lapse  of  many  centuries, 
since  the  mountains  became  inhabited,  most  of 
them  have  perished.  "Immense  elms  capable  of 
seating  six  hundred  persons  in  their  shade," ^  and 
valuable  trees  of  different  kinds  are  found 
throughout  the  empire.  A  forest  reserve  of  sixty- 
seven  million  acres  is  carefully  protected  by  the 
Indian  government. 
Banyan  Trees  T^g  Indian  banyan  tree  has  become  noted 
throughout  the  world.  Some  of  these  trees  have 
been  well  cared  for,  and  in  the  course  of  a  century 
or  more  they  have  spread  in  all  directions  until  a 
single  tree  is  made  to  resemble  a  small  forest.  A 
tourist  visiting  Calcutta  a  few  years  ago  was  taken 
to  the  Botanical  Gardens  to  see  a  famous  banyan 
tree  which  had  been  carefully  protected  for  years, 
and  even  assisted  in  its  natural  effort  to  support 
^Beach,  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident,  12. 


The  Country  17 

its  spreading  branches  by  stems  thrown  down  from 
above.  When  the  tree  was  pointed  out  to  this 
stranger,  as  he  was  approaching  it,  he  was  utterly 
unable  to  realize  that  the  tiny  forest  before  him 
consisted  of  a  single  tree,  and  asked  in  great  sim- 
plicity, "Which  one  of  these  trees  is  the  banyan  ?" 

India  has  some  extensive  deserts  in  the  north-  cultivable 
east,  some  arid  wastes  and  malarious  swamps  in  ^^^^ 
other  regions,  but,  taken  as  a  whole,  it  is  a  land 
of  great  fertility.  Of  the  737,703,322  acres  of 
land,  nearly  one  third  is  poorly  cultivated,  and 
about  140,000,000  cultivable  acres  are  unused. 
Land  which  has  been  cultivated  for  thirty  centu- 
ries, or  possibly  longer,  yields  its  yearly  crop  boun- 
teously without  deep  plowing  and  without  the  help 
of  fertilizers. 

India  fed  and  cared  for  her  own  vast  population  Exports 
and  sent  to  foreign  countries  in  1903-4,  $28,000,-  ^"  mports 
000  of  tea,  $38,000,000  of  wheat  and  flour,  $63,- 
000,000  of  rice,  $70,000,000  of  raw  and  manufac- 
tured jute,  $115,000,000  of  raw  and  manufac- 
tured cotton,  besides  large  quantities  of  hides, 
indigo,  coffee,  lumber,  and  other  products.  Her 
exports  during  1903-4,  totaling  nearly  $500,000,- 
000,  and  her  imports  approximating  $280,000,000 
entitle  her  to  a  prominent  place  among  the  first 
commercial  nations  of  the  world. 

The  first  railroad  in  India  was  completed  in   Railroads 
1853,  connecting  Bombay  and  Thana,  a  distance 
of  three  miles.     During  the  mutiny  of   1857-8 


18  The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

the  government  was  badly  crippled  by  a  lack  of 
facilities  for  transporting  troops.  After  this 
disastrous  experience.  Lord  Dalhousie  influenced 
the  government  to  connect  by  rail  the  large  cities 


and  military  stations.  Through  Lord  Mayo  and 
others  the  railroad  system  has  been  rapidly  ex- 
tended. In  1878  there  were  8,000  miles  in  opera- 
tion; in  1895,  16,000  miles.  A  glance  at  the  rail- 
way map  above  shows  the  empire  connected  by 


The  Country 


19 


nearly  27,000  miles,  placing  India  fifth  among  the 
powers  of  the  world  in  railroad  mileage,  and 
employing  over  400,000  natives. 

In  a  region  so  large  as  India  it  could  not  be  seasons 
expected  that  the  climate  would  be  uniform,  and 
yet  it  presents  certain  features  which  may  be 
spoken  of  as  peculiarly  Indian.  Throughout 
nearly  the  whole  empire  the  year  may  be  divided 
into  three  sections :  cold,  hot,  and  wet. 

The  cold  season  begins  in  northern  India  about  coid  season 
the  first  of  October.  At  Calcutta  and  Bombay  it 
is  hardly  recognized  as  having  begun  before  No- 
vember. With  the  exception  of  about  a  week  near 
the  close  of  December,  it  seldom  rains  during  this 
season.  In  all  northern  India,  from  October  to 
March,  the  v^eather  is  delightful,  with  sky 
almost  cloudless.  People  can  make  their  ar- 
rangements months  in  advance  without  fear  of 
having  them  disturbed  by  bad  weather.  At  points 
as  far  south  as  Lucknow  or  Benares,  a  white  frost 
sometimes  forms  in  late  December  or  early  Janu- 
ary, and  a  very  thin  coating  of  ice  may  sometimes 
be  seen  on  the  water  if  it  is  exposed  in  a  shallow 
vessel  and  in  a  damp  place.  In  Calcutta  and  Bom- 
bay frost  is  never  seen.  Houses  are  never  built 
with  chimneys,  and  fire  is  rarely  introduced  into 
any  dwelling.  In  southern  India  the  thermome- 
ter rarely  falls  below  sixty-five  degrees,  but  in 
northern  India,  during  the  three  or  four  months 
of  the  cold  season,  a  fire  in  the  evening  is  found 
to  be  very  comfortable. 


20  The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

Hot  Season  As  the  end  of  the  cold  season  approaches,  a 
steady  and  sometimes  strong  west  wind  begins  to 
blow,  and  the  signs  of  the  approaching  hot  season 
become  unmistakable.  The  evenings  and  nights 
still  continue  cool  even  as  late  as  March.  In  Cal- 
cutta and  Bombay,  however,  it  is  usually  quite 
warm  before  the  middle  of  March.  By  the  month 
of  April  the  west  wind  has  become  a  hot  wind, 
and  with  the  exception  of  fruit  and  forest  trees, 
vegetation  has  wholly  disappeared ;  not  a  blade  of 
grass  is  to  be  seen ;  daily  the  hot  west  wind  blows 
with  increasing  intensity  and  people  take  refuge 
from  it  as  they  do  from  cold  in  more  northern 
climes.  The  month  of  June  is  a  trying  one  on 
account  of  the  extreme  heat,  especially  in  north- 
ern India. 
Common  It  is  a  commou  mistake  in  the  West  to  suppose 
that  the  farther  north  one  goes  in  India  the 
cooler  will  be  the  weather;  and  young  mission- 
aries very  frequently  make  the  mistake  of  asking 
for  a  station  in  northern  India  on  the  grounds 
that  they  cannot  very  well  endure  the  heat,  and  do 
not  wish  to  expose  themselves  to  the  hot  winds  of 
southern  India  and  thus  risk  their  health.  The 
condition  is  exactly  the  opposite.  The  nearer  one 
is  to  the  equator  the  cooler  it  seems.  At  Eangoon 
it  is  found  to  be  much  hotter  than  at  Singapore, 
which  is  only  ninety  miles  from  the  equator;  in 
Calcutta  again  it  is  much  warmer  than  in  Ran- 
goon, while  as  we  pass  northward  the  thermometer 


Mistake 


The  Country 


21 


rises  in  the  hot  months  until  it  stands  at  Delhi 
and  Lahore,  in  the  far  north,  at  a  figure  that  is 
never  reached  in  Calcutta  and  Bombay. 

While  this  hot  wind  blows  during  the  summer,  care  of  Health 
missionaries  and  Europeans  in  general  avoid  expo- 
sure to  it  as  much  as  possible,  seldom  venturing  out 
of  doors  after  ten  or  eleven  o'clock  in  the  morning, 
or  before  four  or  five  in  the  afternoon.  It  should 
be  said,  howcA-er,  that  the  air  is  moderately  pure  at 
this  season,  and  that  it  is  only  the  excessive  heat 
and  the  effect  of  the  sun's  rays  Avhich  the  foreigner 
must  avoid.  Malarious  influences  of  all  kinds  are 
held  in  suspense  during  this  season,  and  persons 
who  give  proper  attention  to  the  necessary  condi- 
tions often  remark  that  they  really  enjoy  better 
health  at  this  season  than  at  any  other  time  of  the 
year. 

By  the  month  of  June  the  heat  has  become  wet  season 
intense.  About  this  time,  to  use  the  phrase  com- 
monly adopted  in  India,  the  "monsoon  bursts." 
All  over  the  empire  there  is  intense  anxiety  to 
hear  of  the  approach  of  the  rains.  About  the  end 
of  June — sometimes  a  little  earlier — the  telegraph 
announces  that  the  monsoon  has  burst  on  the 
western  coast  of  Ceylon  and  along  the  extreme 
southwestern  coast  of  India.  Each  day  the  rains 
creep  northward.  In  a  week  or  so  they  have 
reached  Bombay,  and  by  the  twentieth  of  June 
they  have  usually  extended  throughout  India.  A 
marked  change  of  temperature  follows  their  ad-  ^ 


22  The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

vent.     The  thermometer  will  perhaps  fall  fifteen 
to  twenty  degrees  at  the  first  downpour. 
Nature's  The  wliole  landscape,  which  has  been  utterly  des- 

Awakening  olate  for  three  months,  and  which  at  last  looks  as 
though  it  had  been  sprinkled  over  with  ashes,  be- 
comes in  a  few  days  clothed  in  the  richest  green. 
Vegetation  of  every  kind  springs  into  wonderful 
activity ;  the  birds  seem  filled  with  new  life ;  multi- 
tudes of  frogs  come  from  no  one  knows  where  and 
revel  in  every  pond  and  puddle  to  be  seen  in  the 
level  fields.  During  the  next  three  or  four  months 
India  is  a  beautiful  country,  clothed  everywhere  in 
the  richest  green  and  filled  with  every  form  of  ac- 
tive and  joyous  life.  The  rain  does  not  fall  con- 
stantly, but  one  or  more  showers  may  be  expected 
every  day.  The  evenings  and  mornings  are  de- 
lightful, and  in  no  land  do  the  clouds  present  a 
grander  spectacle  than  when  banked  up  against 
the  western  sky  at  sunset,  with  great  billowy  edges 
upturned  toward  the  setting  sun  and  glowing  in  the 
rich  light  with  which  its  evening  rays  bathe  a  trop- 
ical landscape.  Not  everyone,  however,  enjoys  this 
season.  The  air  if  cooler  is  more  sultry,  and  the 
houses  become  damp  and  to  some  people  uncom- 
fortable. Cholera,  fever,  and  other  diseases  are 
apt  to  be  more  prevalent  than  when  the  heat  is 
greatest.  As  in  northern  climes  the  cold  is  little 
felt  and  inflicts  but  little  injury  on  invalids  when 
it  is  dry,  so  in  India  the  excessive  heat  is  not  felt 
as  an  affliction  so  long  as  the  air  is  perfectly  dry. 


The  Country  23 

The  climate  of  India  is  not  so  great  a  foe  to  Health 
life  and  health  as  is  generally  supposed.  If  it 
must  be  conceded  that  Bengal  is  the  birthplace  of 
Asiatic  cholera,  it  can  be  said  in  reply  that  India 
has  never  produced  a  case  of  yellow  fever.  If  the 
plague  infests  the  cities  and  even  spreads  among 
the  remote  villages,  it  should  be  remembered  that 
it  found  its  way  to  India  from  China,  and  that  it 
once  devastated  London  more  terribly  than  it  has 
ever  afflicted  any  city  in  India. 

Very  much  of  the  ill  health  of  Europeans  in  The 
India  can  be  traced  to  their  defiance  of  the  sim- 
plest laws  of  health,  by  persistently  following  a 
course  of  life  in  the  tropics  which  would  be  barely 
within  the  limits  of  safety  in  the  higher  latitudes 
of  Europe  and  America.  The  feverish  haste  which 
attends  the  lives  of  most  persons  in  the  Occidental 
world  cannot  be  transferred  to  the  quiet  and 
calm  environments  of  life  in  India  or  in  the  East 
generally,  but  the  average  American  and  Euro- 
pean can  live  his  three  score  years  and  ten  in 
India  and  enjoy  health  and  cheerful  spirits  if  he 
adapts  himself  to  his  environment.  The  writer 
of  these  lines,  after  a  personal  experience  of  forty- 
six  years,  is  glad  to  put  on  record  the  testimony 
that  when  God  called  him  to  India  he  gave  him 
"a  goodly  heritage,"  and  many  retired  "old  In- 
dians" in  Great  Britain  and  other  parts  of  Europe 
often  speak  longingly  of  the  Eastern  home  in 
which  the  years  of  their  active  life  have  been  spent. 


24  The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

QUESTIONS  OF  STUDY 
These  questions  have  a  twofold  purpose:  First,  to 
assist  the  average  student,  partly  in  reviewing  the 
most  important  topics  of  the  chapter  and  partly  in 
thinking  out  further  conclusions.  Those  marked  * 
may  serve  as  a  basis  for  more  extended  thought  and 
discussion.  It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  these  should 
be  answered  without  careful  reflection.  Second,  to 
assist  leaders  of  mission  study  classes  in  bringing  out 
the  points  of  the  lesson.  Leaders  should  rarely  use 
the  entire  list  in  a  single  meeting,  but  should  freely 
select,  modify,  and  supplement.  In  addition  to  the 
use  of  these  questions,  they  should  not  fail  to  obtain 
from  the  secretaries  of  their  denominational  mis- 
sionary boards  helps  containing  full  suggestions  for 
the  conduct  of  each  session  of  the  class. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  CHAPTER  I 
Aim:  To  Realize  the  Claim  that  India  as  a  Land 

Presents  fob  Chbistian  Conquest 
I... Size  of  the  country. 

1.  How  does  India  compare  in  size  with  the  United 

States  and  with  Great  Britain? 

2.  How    do    its    extreme    distances    compare    with 

distances  in  the  United  States? 

3.  What  American  cities  measure  the  distance  of 

Mandalay  from  Quetta?    Madras  from  Peshaw- 
ar?     Calcutta    from    Lahore?      Bombay    from 
Rangoon? 
II. .  .Population. 

4.  As  the  sun  makes  his  daily  rounds  what  are  the 

three  greatest  masses  of  population  he  sees  on 
the  earth's  surface? 

5.  How  does  India  compare  in  size  and  population 

with  that  part  of  the  United  States  lying  west 
of  the  Mississippi  River?  (excluding  Alaska.) 


The  Country  25 

6.  How  does  the  population  of  India  compare  with 

that  of  the  entire  United  States?     With  that 
of  Africa?    With  that  of  Canada? 

7.  What  part  of  the  world's  total  population  is  that 

of  India? 
S.  What  eliect  will  it  have  on  evangelization  that 
such  a  large  percentage  of  the  people  live  in 
villages? 

III. .  .Climate. 

9.  In  what  part  of  India  should  you  prefer  to  live 

for  the  entire  year?     W^hy? 

10.  Y/hat  months  should  you  choose  for  a  visit  to 

India? 

11.  What  part  of  America  at  what  season  would 
most  remind  you  of  the  plains  of  the  upper 
Ganges  basin  on  June  the  first?  on  July  the 

first? 

12.  AVhat  parts  of  India  should  you  most  like  to 
visit  on  account  of  the  scenery,  and  why? 

lY. .  .India's  Value  to  England. 

13.  Why  does  England  guard  India  so  jealously 
against  Russia? 

14.  Which  of  the  principal  products  of  India  can- 

not be  raised  in  Great  Britain? 

15.  What  sorts  of  British  goods  are  especially 
needed  in  India? 

16.  Kow  does  India  rank  among  the  purchasers  of 
British  goods?  (Consult  the  Statesman's  Year- 
Eook  or  similar  authority). 

17.  Vv^hy  is  trade  between  nations  of  different  zones 

apt  to  be  more  profitable  than  that  between 
nations  of  the  same  zone? 
IS.  Try  to  estimate  what  it  costs  England  to  main- 
tain control  of  India?     What  are  the  motives 
for  this  expenditure? 


36  The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

Y... Value  of  England  to  India. 

19.*  What  lias  England  done  to  increase  the  eco- 
nomic resources  of  India? 

20.  How  does  India  compare  in  modern  improve- 
ments with  Persia  or  Siam? 

21.*  How  do  these  improvements  aid  in  mitigating 
the  effects  of  famine? 

22.  Do  you  consider  English  occupation  on  the 
whole  an  economic  blessing  to  India  or  not? 

YI. .  .India's  Claim  on  the  Church. 

23.  What  is  the  claim  of  India  on  the  Christian 
Church  in  view  of  its  size  and  resources? 

24.  What  is  its  claim  in  view  of  its  vast  popula- 
tion? 

25.  Does  the  present  condition  of  these  multitudes 

increase  or  decrease  the  claim? 
26.*  Try  to  estimate  the  appeal  that  India  makes 
to  the  eye  of  God  as  he  looks  down  upon  the 
world? 

27.  Does  trade  constitute  the  greatest  opportunity 
that  India  presents  to  the  Christian  world? 

28.  With  what  relative  zeal  do  we  advance  to  eco- 
nomic and  Christian  conquest? 

29.  What  of  all  things  that  we  have  to  give  India 

does  she  most  need? 

30.*  What  is  our  responsibility  for  offering  her  the 
best  things? 

31.  Sum  up  the  claims  of  India  as  a  land  for  Chris- 
tian conquest? 

References  for  Advanced   Study. — Chapter  I 
I . . .  Climate. 

Beach:   India  and  Christian  Opportunity,  15-19. 
Chamberlain:   The  Cobra's  Den,  XV. 
Compton:    Indian   Life   in   Town   and   Country,   7, 
184,  263. 


The  Country  27 

I. .  .Cliw.ate — {Continued) . 

Griffin:   India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal,  VI. 
Stewart:  Life  and  Work  in  India,  IV. 

II. .  .Resources. 

Reach:   India  and  Christian  Opportunity,  12-15. 
Elphinstone:   History  of  India,  5-10. 
Griffin:   India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal,  V. 
Rowe:  Every-day  Life  in  India,  XXIV,  XXV. 

III..  .Famines. 

Curtis:  Modern  India,  XX. 

Denning:    Mosaics  from  India,  XI. 

Hunter:  Brief  History  of  the  Indian  Peoples,  124, 

231,  233,  242. 
Lilly:   India  and  Its  Problems,  286-288. 
Rowe:  Every-day  Life  in  India,  XXXVII. 
Scott:   In  Famine  Land,  I,  II,  III,  IV,  VI. 

IV..  .Burma. 

Cochrane:  Among  the  Burmans,  VII. 
Hall:  A  People  at  School,  I. 
Sangermano:   The  Burmese  Empire,  VII. 
Smith:  Ten  Years  in  Burma,  IV. 
Thoburn:   India  and  Malaysia,  XXXIV. 


INVADERS  AND   RULERS 


CHAPTER    II 
INVADERS  AND  RULERS. 

Nowhere  are  the  words,  "the  gorgeous  East/'   a  Land  oi 


used  with  such  complete  fitness  as  when  applied 
to  India.  It  is  the  one  land  of  the  Orient  that  is 
invested  with  ever-changing  interest  and  romantic 
charm  at  each  stage  of  its  development.  The  vision 
of  Heine  in  his  day-dream  is  almost  literally  true : 
"And  I  saw  the  blue,  holy  Ganges,  the  eternally 
radiant  Himalayas,  the  gigantic  banyan  forests, 
with  their  wide  leafy  avenues,  in  which  the 
clever  elephants  and  the  white  robed  pilgrims 
peacefully  wander;  strange  dreamy  flowers  gazed 
at  me  with  mysterious  meaning;  golden  wondrous 
birds  burst  into  glad  wild  song."  India  still,  to  use 
Milton's  phrase, 

"with  richest  hand, 
Showers  on  her  kings  barbaric  pearl  and  gold," 

while  about  these  native  courts,  and  the  great  cities 
and  structures,  lingers  a  strange  poetic  halo  from 
the  past.  The  peninsula  has  undergone  so  many 
changes  in  its  long  history,  so  many  invaders  have 
entered  its  territory,  so  many  thrones  have  arisen 
and  passed  away,  that  the  land  everywhere  is  full 

31 


Historic 
Charm 


Two 
Stone  Ages 


32  The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

of  historic  associations  and  the  memories  of  de- 
parted greatness. 

The  Earliest  Invaders 

In  the  early  dawn  of  Indian  life,  as  disclosed 
by  modern  research,  there  were  two  stone  ages,  one 
having  agate  knives  and  rough  flint  weapons,  such 
as  are  found  in  the  Xarbada  valley ;  the  succeeding 
one  using  polished  flint  axes  and  other  deftly 
wrought  implements  of  stone,  like  those  found  in 
northern  Europe. 
Pre-Aryan  jj^  appears  that  peoples  representing  the  early 
metal  age  followed  those  of  the  stone  ages  and 
that  they  were  invaders  belonging  chiefly  to  two 
stocks.  There  were,  first,  the  Tibeto-Burman  tribes 
entering  India  from  the  northeast  and  clinging  to 
the  skirts  of  the  Himalayas ;  and  second,  the  Dra- 
vido-Munda,  who  seem  to  have  made  their  way 
into  the  Punjab  by  the  northwestern  passes.  The 
rude  stone  circles  erected  by  these  people  have  been 
discovered,  also  upright  slabs  and  mounds  beneath 
which  they  buried  their  dead.  The  remains  in 
these  tombs  show  that  they  knew  how  to  make 
round  pots  of  hard  thin  earthernware,  that  they 
fought  with  iron  weapons,  and  wore  ornaments  of 
silver  and  gold.^ 

^Hunter,   A   Brief   History   of  the  Indian   Peoples^ 
40,  49. 


Invaders  and  Rulers 


33 


The  Coming  of  the  Aryans 

The  people  holding  central  place  in  Indians  his-  The  Aryan 
torical  development  is  the  Aryan.  From  their  ^"^^^^°° 
ancestral  home  in  Asia  this  great  race  sent  streams 
of  migration  westward  into  Europe.  Another 
stream  going  southeastward  into  India,  began  in 
the  Punjab  the  conquest  of  the  original  inhabi- 
tants and  became  eventually  the  predominant  ele- 
ment in  the  country^s  population  and  history.  The 
word  "Aryan"  means  noble,  and  the  term  applied 
to  the  language  of  the  Aryans  is  "Sanskrit'^  or 
"polished,"  both  names  suggestive  of  the  high 
qualities  of  this  richly  endowed  race.  Fair  com- 
plexioned,  noble-featured,  alert  and  forceful  in 
mind,  aggressive  in  spirit,  having  a  wealth  of  reli- 
gious ideas  and  ceremonies,  and  devoted  to  the 
service  of  their  "bright  gods,"  the  Aryan  invaders 
gradually  moved  forward  in  their  appropriation 
of  all  the  more  desirable  regions  of  India.  The 
aboriginal  peoples,  whom  the  Aryans  found  in  pos- 
session of  the  fertile  river  valle3^s  and  plains,  were 
overcome  in  war,  enslaved,  or  made  a  servile  class, 
or  driven  into  the  fastnesses  of  the  hills,  moun- 
tains, and  deserts.  As  time  v^ent  on  there  was,  in 
large  sections  of  the  land,  a  gradual  intermarriage 
and  blending  of  the  Aryan  and  the  non-Aryan 
populations. 

The  Aryans  probably  invaded  India  about  two   Three  Historic 
thousand   years  before  the  Christian  era."  From    ^^""'^^ 

^Frazer,  British  Rule  in  India,  51. 


34  The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

1400  to  1000  B.  C,  they  spread  from  the  Punjab 
southeastward  into  the  Ganges  valley  as  far  as 
Benares  and  Behar,  establishing  kingdoms  as  they 
went/  From  1000  to  330  B.  C,  they  advanced 
from  the  valley  of  the  Ganges  and  extended  their 
sway  widely,  introducing  Hindu  civilization  and 
founding  Hindu  kingdoms,  even  to  the  southern- 
most limits  of  India.' 


Alexander's 
Invasion 


Close  oi 
Greek  Period 


Greek  and  Scythian  Incursions 

Alexander  the  Great  invaded  northwestern  In- 
dia in  327  B.  C.  In  his  principal  battle,  near  the 
Jehlam  Eiver,  he  defeated  Porus,  a  local  monarch, 
who  afterward  became  his  friend.  The  Greeks 
were  able  to  penetrate  the  country  only  as  far  as 
Amritsar,  and  recognizing  that  any  defeat  would 
be  fatal,  they  turned  back  and  descended  the  Jeh- 
lam and  Indus  to  the  sea.  A  part  of  the  army 
returned  homeward  in  boats,  and  Alexander  led 
the  rest  of  his  forces  back  through  great  hardships 
to  Susa.  The  important  results  of  his  expedition 
were  the  alliances  he  made,  the  cities  he  founded, 
and  the  Greek  garrisons  he  planted. 

After  Alexander's  death,  Bactria  and  the  cities' 

of  India,  in  which  Greek  dominion  was  intact,  fell 

to  Seleukos  Nikator,  the  founder  of  the  Syrian 

monarchy;  and  as  Chandra  Gupta  had  built  up  a 

considerable  empire  in  northern  India,  Seleukos 

^Beach,  India  and  Christian  Opportunity,  34. 
-Dutt,  Ancient  Iridia,  60,  61. 


Invaders  and  Eulers 


35 


gave  to  him  his  daughter  in  marriage,  and  sold  to 
him  the  Greek  possessions  in  India.  There  were 
further  incursions  into  the  Indian  peninsula  from 
Greek  Bactria,  but  these  ceased  about  200  B.  C. 

About  100  B.  C,  inroads  into  India  were  made  The  Scythians 
by  a  people  supposed  to  be  the  Scythians,  from  a 
region  east  of  the  old  ancestral  home  of  the  Aryan 
race.  These  Scythic  invasions  went  on  for  a 
period,  extending  to  500  A.  D.,  but  their  greatest 
aggressions  were  made  in  the  century  preceding 
the  birth  of  Christ.  Their  most  notable  king  was 
Kanishka,  who  called  the  Fourth  Buddhist  Coun- 
cil about  40  A.  D.,  and  who  held  his  court  in 
Kashmir, 

Mohammedan  Rulers 


Mohammed  was  born  in  570  A.  D.,  created  a 
conquering  religion,  and  died  in  632  A.  D.  Within 
a  hundred  years  after  his  death  the  armies  of  Islam 
had  made  the  crescent  supreme  throughout  Asia, 
west  of  the  Hindu  Kush  Mountains.  From  the 
first  this  new  power  seems  to  have  fixed  eager  eyes 
upon  the  rich  domain  of  India,  and  some  early 
assaults  were  made,  but  Islam  had  to  consoli- 
date itself  during  three  more  centuries  before  it 
grew  strong  enough  to  grasp  the  prize.  Even  then 
India  did  not  fall  before  the  Mohammedans  at 
once,  for  there  were  a  series  of  invasions  and  par- 
tial conquests  during  nearly  eight  centuries,  and 


Islam's  Efforts 
for  the  Prize 


36 


The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 


at  no  time  was  Islam  master  of  the  whole  of  India. 
The  period  of  the  Mohammedan  rule  is  calculated 
as  extending  from  1001  to  1761  A.  D.  The  rulers 
of  these  seven  and  a  half  centuries  were  of  eight 
houses  or  dynasties.  The  most  famous  of  them 
belonged  to  the  last  dynasty,  that  of  the  house  of 
Timur. 
The  Moguls  This  powerful  line  of  conquerors  were  Mongols, 
or  Moguls,  and  in  1398  Timur,  or  Tamerlane,  led 
through  the  Afghan  passes  the  united  hordes  of 
Tartary,  defeated  the  Tughlak  King  Mahmud 
under  the  walls  of  Delhi,  committed  great  mas- 
sacres in  that  capital  and  Meerut,  and  retired  to 
his  own  capital,  Samarkand,  with  immense  booty. 
Though  he  had  proclaimed  himself  emperor  at 
Delhi,  the  title  lapsed  till  his  grandson  Baber 
revived  it,  regained  possession  of  Delhi  and  other 
cities  of  India,  and  was  the  first  to  bear  the  famous 
title,  the  Great  Mogul. 

The  grandson  of  Baber,  Akbar  the  Great,  whose 
reign  extended  from  1556  to  1605  A.  D.,  is 
regarded  as  the  greatest  sovereign  India  ever  had, 
as  well  as  the  most  illustrious  Asiatic  monarch  of 
modem  times.^  He  subdued  all  India  north  of  the 
Vindhya  Mountains  and  organized  it  into  an 
empire.  He  conciliated  the  Hindu  tributary  princes 
by  placing  them  side  by  side  with  the  Mogul  nobles, 
thus  checking  at  the  same  time  the  power  of  the 
latter.  He  carried  out  a  great  system  of  land  set- 
'Beach,  India  and  Christian  Opportunity,  63. 


Akbar 
the  Great 


Taj  Mahal,  Agra 


Great  Mosque,  Delhi 


Invaders  and  Rulers 


37 


tlement  as  a  basis  of  taxation,  the  outlines  of  which 
have  continued  down  to  the  present.  It  is  interest- 
ing to  note  that  Akbar's  tax  was  about  three  times 
the  amount  that  the  British  collect/  He  respected 
the  laws  of  the  Hindus,  but  put  down  their  inhu- 
mane rites,  such  as  trial  by  ordeal,  animal  sacri- 
fices, and  early  child  marriages.  "He  legalized  the 
remarriage  of  Hindu  widows  but  he  failed  to  abol- 
ish widow-burning  on  the  husband's  funeral  pyre, 
although  he  took  steps  to  ensure  that  the  act  was 
a  voluntary  one."""  In  religious  view  he  was  broad 
and  tolerant. 

Among  the  successors  of  Akbar,  Shah  Jehan  and  shah  jehan 
Aurungzeb  are  also  noted  for  the  splendor  and  ^  "f^n^^ 
success  of  their  reigns.  If  Akbar  has  to  his  archi- 
tectural credit  the  massive  and  imposing  red  sand- 
stone fortress  at  Agra,  and  his  tomb  near  by.  Shah 
Jehan  has  there  the  unrivaled  Taj  Mahal,  his  Pearl 
Mosque  within  the  fort,  and  at  Delhi  the  Great 
Mosque  and  the  palace.  Aurungzeb  by  attempting 
to  impose  his  Moslem  faith  upon  the  body  of  the 
Hindus  undermined  the  authority  of  his  house, 
and  the  Marathas  came  forward  as  a  new  Hindu 
power  in  central  and  western  India. 

The  tempest  of  invasion  by  the  Afghans,  break-   closing  Date 
ing  the  power  of  the  Marathas  at  the  third  battle   Mohammedan 
of  Panipat  in  1761,  and  the  rising  fortunes  of  the 
English  as  the  coming  rulers,  make  this  date  the 
most  appropriate  as  terminating  the  era  of  Moham- 

^Hunter,  Indian  Empire,  240. 

^Tbid,  237. 


Dominion 


The 
Portuguese 


38  The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

medan  dominion/  During  the  centuries  of  its 
sway,  portions  of  the  population,  especially  in 
eastern  Bengal,  became  Mohammedan  in  religion. 

Continental  European  Settlements 

In  1492  Christopher  Columbus  sailed  westward 
from  Europe,  hoping  to  find  a  new  way  to  India, 
but  found  America  instead.  Five  years  later 
Vasco  da  Gama  started  from  Lisbon  with  an  expe- 
dition, doubled  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  in 
May,  1498,  anchored  off  the  city  of  Calicut'  on  the 
southwest  coast  of  India.  From  that  date  began 
the  period  of  contact  with,  and  settlements  in 
India  by  a  number  of  the  continental  European 
nations.  As  Portugal  was  the  first  of  these  to  find 
the  sea  route  to  the  East,  her  people  enjoyed  a 
monopoly  of  Oriental  trade  for  a  century,  from 
1500  to  1600.  But  their  efforts  to  establish  Portu- 
guese authority  in  India  were  too  deeply  marked 
by  superstition  and  cruelty  to  produce  lasting 
results.  Albuquerque  was  the  only  worthy  leader 
of  expeditions  or  governor  of  settlements  in  India 
who  treated  the  natives  with  kindness.  The  pos- 
sessions in  India  now  remaining  to  the  Portuguese 
are  Goa,  Daman,  and  Diu,  all  on  the  west  coast, 
with  an  area  of  1,558  square  miles  and  a  popula- 
tion in  1901  of  572,290.' 

^Lilly,  India  and  Its  Protlems,  97. 
^The  place   giving  rise  to   the   word  "calico."     It 
must  not  be  confused  with  Calcutta. 

^Beach,  India  and  Christian  Opportunity,  66. 


Invaders  and  Rulers 


39 


Durinsr  the  seventeenth  century  the  Dutch  held  various 

T  .   1      X     T  1     Companies 

a  leading  position  m  the  trade  with  India  and  and 
the  East,  vrith  the  English  as  their  rivals.  The  settlements 
English  East  India  Company  was  formed  in  1600, 
and  the  Dutch  East  India  Company  in  1602. 
Next  came  the  French  with  a  succession  of  com- 
panies of  which  the  first  was  established  in  1604. 
Danish  settlements  were  founded  at  Tranquebar 
and  Serampur  in  1616,  and  acquired  by  the  Eng- 
lish by  purchase  in  1845.  The  German  or  Ostend 
Company  was  incorporated  in  1722,  but  the  jeal- 
ousies and  diplomatic  adjustments  of  the  European 
powers  led  to  the  extinction  of  its  two  settlements 
in  1793.  Less  important,  and  partly  abortive 
attempts  were  made  by  Prussia  in  1750  and  1753, 
and  by  Sweden  in  1731,  the  latter  being  the  last 
nation  of  Europe  to  engage  in  maritime  trade  with 
India,  as  the  company  was  reorganized  in  1806.^ 

Out  of  all  these  aspirants  for  foothold  and  power   struggle  of 
in  India  the  final  decisive  struggle  narrowed  itself   France  and 

°°  Great  Britain 

down  to  two — France  and  Great  Britain.  Even 
with  them  the  rise  and  fall  of  their  strength  in  the 
East  often  simply  reechoed  the  advantage  which 
one  power  or  the  other  gained  over  its  antagonist 
in  the  European  field,  or  in  the  expanding  western 
world  of  America.  For  a  time  success  seemed  to 
attend  the  efforts  of  France  both  in  America  and 
India.  As  Montcalm,  the  leader  of  the  French 
^Hunter,  A  Brief  History  of  the  Indian  Peoples, 
173,  174;  Beach,  India  and  Christian  Opportunity, 
66-68. 


40  The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

power  in  the  western  world,  had  a  succession  of 
victories  at  Fort  Ontario,  Fort  William  Henry, 
and  Fort  Ticonderoga,  but  at  length  fell,  and  his 
cause  forever  failed,  on  the  Heights  of  Abraham, 
before  the  British  forces  led  by  Wolfe;  so  the 
French  arms  in  India  under  Dupleix  won  success 
after  success  at  Fort  Saint  George  and  at  the  fort- 
ress of  Gingi,  only  to  go  down  forever,  as  far  as 
dominion  in  India  was  concerned,  before  the  genius 
of  Clive  at  the  battle  of  Plassey/ 

British  Control  and  Development 
Outiirxe  of  Xot  infrequently  a  commander  or  leader  learns 

o  icy  ^^^  secret  of  success  from  his  foes.  The  most  care- 
ful English  writers  now  recognize  that  it  was  the 
French  leader  Dupleix  who,  in  the  years  from  1740 
to  1750,  first  discerned  the  leading  principles  and 
points  of  policy  that  made  possible  the  control  of 
India  by  a  European  power."  Dupleix  himself  par- 
tially applied  this  policy,  but  it  was  left  for  Clive, 
the  East  India  Company,  and  Great  Britain  to 
carry  it  out  so  thoroughly  as  in  the  end  to  make 
India  a  part  of  the  British  empire.  Some  of  the 
points  involved  may  be  noted. 

'The  Battle  of  Plassey  was  fought  about  seventy 
miles  north  of  Calcutta,  June  23,  1757. 

By  the  treaties  of  1814  and  1815  there  remain  as 
French  dependencies  in  India  five  separate  towns: 
Pondicherri,  Karikal,  Chandernagar,  Mahe,  and  Yan- 
aon,  with  a  total  area  of  196  square  miles  and  a 
population  in  1903  of  273,748.  statesman's  Year- 
Book,  1905,  p.  637. 

=^Seeley,  The  Expansion  of  England,  201,  211,  212. 


Invaders  and  Rulers  41  ■ 

The  English  were  a  peaceful  trading  company,   war  an  ! 

but  they  employed  troops  to  defend  their  factories   °PP°""°i*y        ! 
against  the  French  and  the  natives.    England  was  ! 

at  war  with  France  during  much  of  the  time  from  \ 

1740  to  1820,  the  period  during  which  the  British  ] 

control  of  India  was  largely  decided.    English  ac- 
quisition of  power  in  the  East  began  not  in  some  : 
quarrel  between  the  East  India  Company  and  a 
native  state.     It  began  in  an  alarming  attempt 
made  by  the  French  to  get  control  over  the  Deccan,                          ' 
which  would  lead  to  the  destruction  of  the  English 
settlements  at  Madras  and  Bombay.    Thus  the  first 
military  movements  of  the  English  in  India  were    < 
made  to  defend  themselves,  and  the  positions  they 
already  held,  against  the  French.     In  all  their                          j 
later  advance  steps,  till  the  close  of  the  Napoleonic                          ' 
wars,  the  struggle  for  dominion  in  India  was  felt 
to  be  a  part  of  the  great  contest  of  the  English                          j 
nation  with  France. 

Again,  there  came  to  the  English  large  extension   je^rito  ^ 
of  territory  and  increase  of  revenues,  in  conse-   and  Revenues      ; 
quence  of  their  wars   and   dealings  with  native  ' 

powers.  They  soon  learned  the  advantage  whenever  ; 

an  issue  arose  of  favoring  a  rival  to  a  position  ' 

which   was  under   the  patronage   of   their   foes.  : 

When  Dupleix,  in  1748,  placed  his  nominees  on  the  i 

thrones  of  Haidarabad  and  Arcot,  the  English  were  i 

ready  with  a  candidate  to  the  throne  of  Arcot  in  the  ; 

person  of  Muhammad  Ali.     When  Colonel  Clive 
defeated  at  Plassey  the  viceroy  of  Bengal,  who  had 


42  The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

sided  with  the  French,  he  had  at  hand  Mir  Jafar 
to  elevate  to  this  viceregal  post,  as  Nawab  of  Ben- 
gal, and  obtained  for  him  the  official  decree  of 
appointment  from  the  Mognl  emperor  at  Delhi. 
"For  this  service,  Mir  Jafar  granted  to  the  East 
India  Company  the  landholder's  rights  over  an 
extensive  tract  of  country  around  Calcutta,  and 
paid  a  sum  of  not  less  than  a  million  and  a  half 
dollars/  This  policy  thenceforward  was  increas- 
ingly employed.  Government  everywhere  through- 
out the  land  was  disorganized  owing  to  the  break- 
ing down  of  Mogul  dominion.  There  were  wars 
and  clashing  interests  of  native  rulers  and  aspi- 
rants to  power.  The  English  came  in  as  arbiters 
among  these  contending  forces  at  a  critical  period, 
and  in  return  for  their  services  received  immense 
extensions  of  territory  and  enlargements  of 
revenue. 
Paramount  Then,  as  the  final  and  logical  result,  it  was  seen 
that  England  should  become  the  paramount  power, 
not  only  in  the  territory  which  had  been  acquired, 
but  over  all  the  native  or  feudatory  states.  Only  in 
this  way  could  permanent  peace  and  order  be 
secured  and  the  progress  of  all  India  toward  a 
higher  civilization  be  made  possible. 
Able  Founders  Amoug  thosc  who  did  most  to  win  the  control  of 
Empire  India  for  Great  Britain  are  Robert  Clive,  the  hero 
of  the  battle  of  Plassey;  Warren  Hastings,  who 

^Hunter,   A  Brief  History  of  the  Indian  Peoples, 
178-182. 


Invaders  and  Eulers  43 

kept  for  England,  in  a  great  crisis,  the  empire 
which  Clive  had  founded ;  Lord  Wellesley,  who  first 
clearly  laid  down  the  principle  that  the  English 
must  be  the  one  paramount  power,  and  that  native 
princes  could  only  retain  their  insignia  of  sover- 
eignty by  relinquishing  political  authority;  and 
Lord  Dalhousie,  "the  greatest  of  Indian  pro-con- 
suls," who  made  remarkable  additions  to  the  Brit- 
ish possessions  in  India,  and  at  the  same  time 
abolished  manifold  wrongs  and  brought  about  most 
valuable  internal  improvements.  During  his 
administration  from  1848  to  1856,  in  the  words 
of  Hunter :  "He  founded  the  Public  Works  Depart- 
ment, with  a  view  to  creating  the  network  of  roads 
[railroads]  and  canals  which  now  cover  India.  He 
opened  the  Ganges  canal,  still  the  largest  work  of 
the  kind  in  the  country ;  he  turned  the  sod  of  the 
first  Indian  railway.  He  promoted  steam  commu- 
nication with  England  via  the  Eed  Sea ;  he  intro- 
duced cheap  postage  and  the  electric  telegraph."^ 

The  most  important  event  in  Indian  history  The  Mutiny 
during  the  latter  half  of  the  nineteenth  century 
was  the  Mutiny  of  1857,  in  which  the  sepoys  in 
British  military  service  revolted,  kindling  a  vast 
flame  of  rebellion  to  British  authority  throughout 
the  valley  of  the  Ganges  and  in  Central  India. 

It  is  perhaps  not  possible  to  give  the  real  causes    its  causes 
of  this  great  uprising.    Those  usually  suggested  lie 

^Hunter,  A  Brief  History  of  the  Indian  Peoples, 
214.  215. 


44  The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

upon  the  surface.    It  is  averred  that  the  policy  of 
annexation  had  been  carried  to  an  extreme.     The 
appearance  of  Western  inventions  like  the  steam 
engine  and  the  telegraph  is  said  to  have  created 
widespread  alarm.    The  failure  of  the  government 
to  open  avenues  of  official  promotion  to  the  natives 
is  considered  to  have  been  a  grievance.    Even  the 
use  of  lard  to  grease  the  cartridges  served  to  native 
regiments,  so  making  them  ceremonially  unclean 
alike  to  Hindu  and  Mohammedan,  was  probably  a 
blundering  accident  that  has  been  made  to  serve 
as  a  cause.    The  fundamental  reason  seems  to  have 
been  that  a  crisis  was  reached  in  the  transition 
from  the  old  India  to  the  new,  much  like  that 
shown  in  the  Boxer  uprising  in  China  in  1900. 
The  Outcome       The  quelling  of  the  rebellion  added  immortal 
honor  to  British  names  like  those  of  Havelock  and 
Campbell,  in  relieving  Lucknow,  and  of  Nichol- 
son in  turning  the  scale  at  the  siege  of  Delhi. 
Brilliant    operations    covered    with    glory    alike 
British  troops  and  native  forces  that  remained 
loyally  on  the  English  side.     The  awful  era  of 
peril,  suffering,  and  death  has  left  as  visible  memo- 
rials the  ruined  residency  at  Lucknow  and  the 
Memorial  Well  at   Cawnpur.     But,  as  in  China 
after  Peking  was  re-occupied,  the  last  sparks  of 
the  Mutiny  were  hardly  quenched  before  mission- 
ary operations  leaped  forward  by  a  new  impulse. 
Transference        rp|^g  Mutiuv  causcd  the  transference  in  1858  of 

to  the  Crown  *^ 

the  government  of  India  from  the  East  India  Com- 


Invaders  and  Eulers  45 

pany  to  the  CrowTi  of  Great  Britain.  Finally,  as 
a  second  notable  date,  on  January  1,  1877,  Queen 
Victoria  was  proclaimed  Empress  of  India  at  a 
durbar^  of  unparalleled  magnificence,  on  the  his- 
toric "ridge'^  overlooking  the  ancient  Mogul  capi- 
tal of  Delhi;  and  the  long  course  of  events  by 
which  India  has  come  to  be  a  part  of  the  British 
empire  was  complete. 

This  event  has  been  fittingly  followed,  at  the  opening  of  th^ 
opening  of  the  twentieth  century  and  the  com-  c^tul^^' 
mencement  of  the  reign  of  King  Edward  VII,  by 
the  Indian  commemoration  of  his  coronation,  Jan- 
uary 1,  1903,  when  he  was  proclaimed  by  the  vice- 
roy, as  Emperor  on  the  same  site  at  Delhi  that 
witnessed  Queen  Victoria's  reception  of  the  impe- 
rial title.  In  the  great  ceremony,  which  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  considerable  reduction  of  taxation, 
over  a  hundred  rulers  of  separate  states  testified 
their  allegiance  to  their  common  sovereign. 

By  its  latest  enumeration,  the  results  of  which   British 

.  2       1  •    •   1  •  Empire  and 

were    announced   in    1906,     the    British    empire   British  india 

embraces  11,908,378  square  miles,  or  slightly  less 

than  one  fourth  of  the  earth's  land  surface,  and 

over  400,0t)0,000  people.     Of  this  immense  total, 

India  represents  over  one  seventh  of  the  territory 

and  three  fourths  of  the  population,  or  300,000.000 

people.     The  British  possessions,  comprising  all 

the  territory  directly  under  British  control,  have, 

^An   ofRcial   reception   or   levee  given   by   a  native 
ruler  or  officer  of  rank  in  British  India. 

^Census  of  the  British  Empire,  1906. 


46  The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

according  to  the  census  of  1901,  an  area  of  1,768,- 
061  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  231,898,807, 
and  are  distributed  into  fourteen  provinces.  Each 
has  its  own  governor  or  head,  but  all  are  controlled 
by  the  supreme  governing  authority  of  India,  con- 
sisting of  a  Governor-General  in  council.  The 
Governor-General,  who  is  also  called  Viceroy,  is 
appointed  by  the  king  of  England,  as  are  also  the 
governors  of  the  provinces  of  Madras  and  Bombay. 
The  heads  of  the  other  provinces  are  chosen  for 
their  merit  from  those  in  the  Anglo-Indian  service. 
Among  the  leading  provinces,  after  Madras  and 
Bombay,  are  Bengal,  United  Provinces  of  Agra 
and  Oudh,  Central  Provinces,  Berar,  Punjab, 
Assam,  and  Burma. 
Feudatory  The  Native  States  and  Agencies  number  thirteen 
divisions  for  administrative  purposes,  with 
an  area  of  679,393  square  miles,  and  a  popu- 
lation in  1901,  of  62,461,549.  The  native  princes 
govern  their  states  with  the  help  and  under  the 
advice  of  a  British  Eesident,  whom  the  Viceroy 
stations  at  their  courts.  The  British  government, 
as  suzerain  in  India,  interferes  when  any  prince 
misgoverns  his  people;  rebukes,  and  if  needful, 
dethrones  the  oppressor;  protects  the  weak  and 
imposes  peace  upon  all.  Of  the  Native  States  and 
Agencies,  the  more  important  are  Haidarabad, 
Eajputana  Agency,  Central  India  Agency,  Mysore 
States,  Central  Provinces  States,  Baroda  State, 
and    the    Native    States    politically    attached    to 


India 


Invaders  and  Eulers 


47 


Madras,     Bombay,     Bengal,     and     the     United 
Provinces/ 

The  question  might  be  asked  how  Great  Britain 
is  able  to  hold  India.  There  is  at  the  bottom  the 
great  ignorance  and  poverty  of  the  masses.  The 
Indian  people   also   lack  nnity  and   a  sense  of 


BOKH/iA^      p^^,^ 


£/fSrSMA/  TOM/<£ST^JV 


T  /    S   £   T 


c 


e   M.  MOfiGjIM 


nationality,  so  that  native  soldiers  can  always  be 
enlisted  for  service  in  India.  Of  the  armies 
that  won  India  for  England  fonr  fifths  consisted 
of  native  troops,  and  of  the  forces  which  garrison 
India,  two  thirds  are  natives."     This  statement, 

^Hunter,  A  Briet  History  of  the  Indian  Peoples, 
32-S5. 

^Seeley,  The  Expansion  of  England,  227. 


The  Holding 
of  India 


48  The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 


Arbiter  for 
Peace  and 
Progress 


Conservative 
Outlook 
Toward  a 
Higher  Future 


almost  in  itself,  answers  the  question  as  to  how 
Great  Britain  holds  India.  An  amazingly  small 
outlay  of  either  men  or  money  has  been  required 
on  England's  part  for  the  winning  and  holding  of 
her  Indian  empire. 

But  there  are  far  deeper  reasons  to  account  for 
Great  Britain's  power  to  retain  India  as  a  part  of 
her  possessions.  She  has  shown  all  the  different 
races,  rulers,  native  states,  and  creeds  that  they 
have  more  to  expect  from  her  than  from  each  other 
if  she  did  not  maintain  peace  among  them.  Fur- 
thermore, there  is  the  military  prestige  of  Great 
Britain  and  the  advantage  of  belonging  to  one  of 
the  foremost  world  powers,  whose  vast  resources 
are  held  ready  to  defend  India  against  the  aggres- 
sions of  any  other  nation.  English  rule  in  India 
has  also  shown  itself  capable  of  promptly  repres- 
sing outbreaks  and  reforming  abuses,  while  at  the 
same  time  it  has  been  wise,  temperate,  and  conser- 
vative in  abolishing  native  customs  or  interfering 
with  long  cherished  institutions. 

This  last  feature  of  British  policy  has  often  been 
a  special  trial  to  the  missionaries  with  their 
advanced  ideas  of  progress,  religious,  moral,  and 
social,  but  it  has  doubtless  largely  been  a  necessity 
in  order  that  the  British  administration  should  not 
find  itself  too  far  ahead  of  the  people.  It  is  to  be 
remembered  that  England  entered  India  and  has 
remained  there  primarily  for  commercial  and  gov- 
ernmental purposes,  and  at  every  step  has  had  to 


'""•y.M^f^'-JM>i» 


nmii\  I JUlJl  1 1  tftiM  iingi' 


Public  Library,  Allahabad 


Victoria  Railway  Station,  Bombay 


Invaders  and  liulers  49 

justify  its  course  to  public  opinion  both  at  home 
and  in  India/  Tliough  it  has  not  been  able  to 
respond  to  all  the  demands  made  upon  it  from 
every  side,  and  at  times  has  moved  very  slowly,  the 
Indian  government  has  swept  away  an  imposing 
list  of  evils.  Among  these  are  widow-burning,  the 
sacrifice  of  the  lives  of  children  and  others  in  some 
of  the  religious  processions  and  festivals,  exposure 
of  infants  or  casting  them  into  the  sacred  rivers, 
the  denial  of  educational  opportunity  to  women 
and  to  men  of  the  lower  castes,  extortion,  cruel 
punishments,  and  numerous  other  abuses  and 
wrongs  formerly  prevalent  under  native  laws,  cus- 
toms, and  administration.  It  has  also  powerfully 
elevated  the  moral  and  social  life  of  the  people. 
Best  of  all,  British  rule  in  India  is  never  content 
with  what  has  been  attained,  but  has  its  eyes  ever 
on  a  higher  future. 

The  control,  improvements,  and  development  British  ruis 
which  British  rule  have  brought  to  India  are 
exceedingly  favorable,  on  the  whole,  to  the  native 
people  themselves  and  to  the  progress  of  missions. 
As  respects  taxes  upon  the  natives,  W.  B.  Stover 
says :  "The  taxation  per  head  is  lighter  than  in  any 
other  civilized  country  in  the  world.  In  Russia  it 
is  eight  times  as  great,  in  England  twenty  times, 
in  Italy  nineteen,  in  France  twenty-five,  in  the 
United  States  and  Germany  thirteen  times.  **'  The 

•Lyall,  Asiatic  Studies,  259. 
^Stover,  India:  A  FroNem.  18,  19. 


weighing  Evil 


50  The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

money  derived  from  taxes  goes  directly  into  the 
treasury  of  the  Indian  government,  and  therefore 
in  reality  is  used  for  India's  benefit. 
Good  Out-  ^  British  control  is  bringing  more  and  more  the 
prevalence  of  social  peace  and  justice  from  one  end 
of  the  land  to  the  other.  The  natives  are  being 
given  a  surprisingly  large  participation  in  the  fran- 
chise and  in  public  office.  Education  is  rapidly 
extending  its  privileges  to  the  masses,  the  efforts 
of  Christian  missions  adding  no  small  part  to  the 
work  of  the  government,  so  that  one  ninth  of  all 
the  school  enrolment  of  India  is  found  in  mission 
schools.^  It  is  true  that  the  evils  of  the  production 
of  opium  and  extension  of  its  use,  the  state  monop- 
oly of  the  drink  traffic,  together  with  the  sad 
example  of  indulgence  in  strong  drink  by  British 
officials,  and  the  deplorable  immorality  in  some 
degree  prevalent  among  British  soldiers  in  India, 
are  reproaches  which  yet  remain  to  be  removed. 
But  notwithstanding  these  drawbacks,  the  verdict 
of  the  missionaries  is  that  British  control  of  India 
is  a  marvelous  example  of  efficiency,  wisdom,  pro- 
gressiveness,  and  fairness  to  a  subject  race. 
Impressive  This  vcrdict  is  also  confirmed  by  native  testi- 
mony, as  is  seen  in  these  eloquent  words,  in  which 
Babu  S.  N.  Banerji  expresses  the  sentiment  of  the 
most  thoughtful  and  influential  natives  of  the 
country : 

"Our  allegiance  to  the  British  rule  is  based  upon 
*Jones,  India's  Problem:  Krishna  or  Christ,  29. 


Native 

Testimony 


Invaders  and  Eulers  51 

the  highest  considerations  of  practical  expediency. 
As  a  representative  of  the  educated  community  of 
India — and  I  am  entitled  to  speak  on  their  behalf 
and  in  their  name — I  may  say  that  we  regard  Brit- 
ish rule  in  India  as  a  dispensation  of  divine  Provi- 
dence, England  is  here  for  the  highest  and  the 
noblest  purposes  of  history.  She  is  here  to  rejuve- 
nate an  ancient  people,  to  infuse  into  them  the 
vigor,  the  virility,  and  the  robustness  of  the  West, 
and  so  pay  off  the  long  standing  debt,  accumulat- 
ing since  the  morning  of  the  world,  which  the  West 
owes  to  the  East.  We  are  anxious  for  the  perma- 
nence of  British  rule  in  India,  not  only  as  a  guar- 
antee for  stability  and  order,  but  because  vrith  it 
are  bound  up  the  best  prospects  of  our  political 
advancement.  To  the  English  people  has  been 
entrusted  in  the  councils  of  Providence  the  high 
function  of  teaching  the  nations  of  the  earth  the 
great  lesson  of  constitutional  liberty,  of  securing 
the  ends  of  stable  government,  largely  tempered  by 
popular  freedom.  This  glorious  work  has  been 
nobly  begun  in  India.  It  has  been  resolutely  car- 
ried on  by  a  succession  of  illustrious  Anglo-Indian 
statesmen  whose  names  are  enshrined  in  our  grate- 
ful recollections.  Marvelous  as  have  been  the  in- 
dustrial achievements  of  the  Victorian  era  in 
India,  they  sink  into  insignificance  when  compared 
with  the  great  moral  trophies  which  distinguish 
that  epoch.  Roads  have  been  constructed;  rivers 
have  been  spanned;  telegraph  and  railway  lines 


52  The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

have  been  laid  down;  time  and  space  have  been 
annihilated;  nature  and  the  appliances  of  nature 
have  been  made  to  minister  to  the  wants  of  man. 
But  these  are  nothing  when  compared  to  the  bold, 
decisive,  statesmanlike  measures  which  have  been 
taken  in  hand  for  the  intellectual,  the  moral,  and 
the  political  regeneration  of  ni}^  countrymen. 
Under  English  influences  the  torpor  of  ages  has 
been  dissipated ;  the  pulsations  of  a  new  life  have 
been  communicated  to  the  people;  an  inspiriting 
sense  of  public  duty  has  been  evolved ;  the  spirit  of 
curiosity  has  been  stirred,  and  a  moral  revolution, 
the  most  momentous  in  our  annals,  culminating  in 
the  transformation  of  national  ideals  and  aspira- 
tions, has  been  brought  about.^^^ 
A  Divinely  At  the  Same  time  it  is  evident  that  the  British 

people  are  only  beginning  to  realize  the  wonderful 
part  which  in  God's  providence  they  are  fulfilling, 
and  are  destined  to  fulfill,  in  the  evangelization  of 
India.  The  fact  that  they  are  one  of  the  foremost 
Protestant  Christian  nations;  that  in  their  mate- 
rial development  of  India,  by  railways,  by  canals 
and  irrigating  works,  by  improved  industrial  prod- 
ucts, and  in  their  care  for  higher  interests,  such 
as  education,  freedom  of  worship,  and  equal  justice 
to  high  and  low,  they  have  won  the  confidence  and 
regard  of  India's  millions;  the  further  fact  that 
the  government  distinctly  welcomes  and  approves 
the  missionary  operations  of  America,  not  less  than 
^Quoted  in  Jones,  India's  Problem:  Krishna  or 
Christ.  51,  52. 


Purposed  Goal 


Invaders  and  Rulers  53 

Great  Britain,  makes  it  certain  that  the  historical 
evolution  of  India  has  led  to  a  divinely  purposed 
conclusion.  Great  Britain's  control  of  India  is  a 
vast  step  toward  the  Christian  conquest  of  India. 

In  view  of  their  remarkable  missionary  service,  Far  western 
past  and  present,  to  the  land  of  the  Vedas,  the  eI^^^/^'^  ^^' 
Churches  of  the  United  States  and  Canada  may  be 
said  to  be  the  final  invaders  of  India ;  but  theirs  is 
a  great  peaceful  enterprise,  the  obligation  of  which 
they  joyfully  accept  in  union  with  the  Christian 
forces  of  Great  Britain.  These  sister  peoples  are 
closely  related  by  ties  of  history,  of  commerce,  of 
religion,  of  language,  of  national  and  political 
interest,  and  of  blood  relationship.  In  a  peculiar 
manner  the  burden  of  the  evangelization  of  the 
world,  and  especially  of  the  Indian  peoples,  as  so 
largely  members  of  the  great  Aryan  family,  rests 
upon  these  English-speaking  Churches  on  both 
sides  of  the  Atlantic.  To  these  countries  has 
been  given  in  large  measure  the  wealth  of  the 
world.  The  gold  in  California,  Alaska,  and  the 
Klondyke,  in  Australia  and  South  Africa,  was  kept 
from  the  eyes  of  aboriginal  races  and  of  Spaniard 
and  Russian  till  these  regions  could  come  under 
the  control  of  this  one  great  Protestant  race. 
Within  the  past  three  years  the  United  States 
and  Canada  together  have  approximately  equaled 
Great  Britain  in  their  amount — about  forty  per 
cent,  each — ^toward  the  world's  total  annual  contri- 
bution for  foreign  missions.    Side  by  side  these  two 


54  The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

great  sections  of  the  English-speaking  race  are 
moving  forward,  through  Christian  and  missionary 
agencies,  to  bring  the  millions  of  India  to  share 
in  the  same  liberty,  enlightenment,  and  civilization 
to  which  the  religion  of  Christ  has  led  the  Aryans 
of  the  West. 

ar 

QUESTIONS    FOR    CHAPTER    II 
Aim:  To  Realize  the  Challenge  to  Christian  Mis- 
sions Involved  in  British  Control  in  India 
I Panorama  of  Indian  Peoples. 

1.  What  are  the  principal  races  that  constitute  the 

population  of  India? 

2.  How   do  these   compare   in   diversity   with   the 

nations  of  Europe? 
3.*  What  tendencies  would  operate  toward  the  in- 
termingling cf  these  races?     What  tendencies 
toward  separation? 

II... Steps  in  British  Occupation. 

4.  What  was  the  political  condition  of  India  in  the 

middle  of  the  eighteenth  century? 

5.  What  had  become   of  the  power   of  the   Great 

Mogul? 

6.  What   invasions   and    wars   were   disorganizing 

society? 

7.  To  what  extent  was  there  any  national  feeling? 

8.  To  what  extent  were  the  people  accustomed  to 

the  rule  of  foreigners? 

9.  What  was  the  original  motive  that  took  the  Eu- 

ropean nations  to  India? 

10.  Was  war  to  their  interest  or  not? 

11.  What    led    to   war   between   the   English   and 
French? 


Invaders  and  Eulers  55 

12.  By  what  means  did  eacli  seek  to  strength  itself 

against  the  other? 

13.  In  what  position  did  the  English  emerge  in  con- 

sequence of  success  in  the  war? 

14.*  Was  their  attitude  up  to  this  point  justifiable? 

15.  What  led  to  extension  of  territory  and  revenue 
when  England  had  become  the  paramount 
power? 

IG.  Was  it  right  for  her  to  assume  control  in  order 
to  maintain  order? 

17.*  What  would  have  been  the  state  of  affairs  in 
the  country  if  England  had  never  chosen  to 
interfere  under  any  circumstances? 

18.*  To  what  extent  was  this  control  of  the  country 
foreseen  and  planned? 

19*.  To  what  extent  was  it  unavoidable  and  justi- 
fiable? 


111... The  Value  of  British  Rule. 

20.  If  you  were  a  peasant  in  northern  India  what 
would  it  be  worth  to  you  to  know  that  inva- 
sions and  wars  were  no  longer  a  possibility? 

21.*  Who  would  govern  the  country  if  England 
retired? 

22.*  What  would  be  the  probable  course  of  events? 

23.  What  is  the  relative  safety  of  life  and  property 

now  and  before  English  control? 

24.  Along  what  lines  have  social  customs  been  im- 

proved? 

25.  In  what  ways  has  the  development  of  railway 
communication  been  a  blessing? 

26.  Sum  up  the  elevating  social  and  political  in- 
fluences that  have  resulted  from  British  con- 
trol. 

27.  Do  they  constitute  it  a  moral  necessity? 


56  The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

IV. .  .The  Need  of  Missionary  Effort. 

28.  How  do  we  compare  on  the  average  in  enlighten- 

ment   and    advancement    with    the    people    of 
India? 

29.  Do  we  need  religious  institutions  and  education 

in  addition  to  what  is  provided  by  the  state? 

30.  How  much  more  is  the  highest  and  purest 
teaching  needed  in  India? 

y . .  .The  ResponsiMlity  of  America. 

31.  Is  Great  Britain  doing  all  for  the  Christian 
conquest  of  India  that  needs  to  be  done? 

32.  Is  she  behind  other  nations  in  her  contributions 

to  the  evangelization  of  the  world? 

33.  Is  India  appreciably  better  manned  with  mis- 
sionaries than  the  other  great  mission  fields? 

34.  What  in  general  has  been  the  length,  extent, 
and  success  of  American  missnonary  operation 
in  India? 

35.  What  is  the  attitude  of  the  government  toward 

American   missionaries? 

36.  What  possible  advantages  might  American  mis- 

sionaries have  over  English  workers? 

37.  Would  it  be  possible  at  this  time  to  confine  the 

missionary    operations    of    Christian    nations 
each  to  a  single  foreign  field? 

38.  What  then  is  the  special  responsibility  of 
America  for  India? 

References  for  Advanced  Study. — Chapter  II 

1. .  .Mohammeclan  Rule. 

Curtis:  Modern  India,  XIII. 

Hunter:  Brief  History  of  the  Indian  Peoples,  X. 

Lilly:  India  and  Its  Problems,  IX. 


Invaders  and  Rulers  57 

II.  ..British  Rule. 

Curtis:  Modern  India,  VII. 

Denning:   Mosaics  from  India,  II. 

Frazer:  British  Rule  in  India,  XV,  XVI. 

Fuller:    The  Yv'rongs   of  Indian  Womanhood,   XII, 

XIII. 
Mason:  Lux  Christi,  58-72. 

Seeley:  The  Expansion  of  England,  III,  IV,  V. 
Stewart:  Life  and  Work  in  India,  III. 
Temple:   A  Bird's-Eye  View  of  Picturesque  India, 

IX,  X. 

III. .  .Mutiny. 
Butler:  The  Land  of  the  Veda,  VI,  VII,  VIII. 
Frazer:   British  Rule  in  India,  XIV. 
Hunter:  Brief  History  of  the  Indian  Peoples,  XV. 
Mason:  Lux  Christi,  66-69. 

IV. .  .British   Statesmen. 

Frazer:   British  Rule  in  India,  V.     (Clive.) 

Frazer:  British  Rule  in  India,  XL  (Lord  William 
Bentinck.) 

Smith:  Twelve  Indian  Statesmen,  III.  (John,  Lord 
Lawrence  of  the  Punjab.) 

Smith:  Twelve  Indian  Statesmen,  II.  (Sir  Henry 
Lawrence). 

Smith:  Tv/elve  Indian  Statesmen,  VIII.  (Sir  Her- 
bert B.  Edwardes.) 


THE   PEOPLE 


CHAPTEK    III 


THE  PEOPLE 

The  people  of  India  have  not  descended  from 
a  common  ancestry,  but  are  a  heterogeneous  mass 
of  tribes,  races,  and  tongues.  Their  diverse  origin 
and  the  size  of  the  country  make  it  possible  to 
write  of  them  only  in  a  general  way.  Customs 
that  prevail  in  one  section  will  probably  be  un- 
known in  another.  As  well  expect  the  same  cus- 
toms to  obtain  in  Manitoba  and  Florida,  as  to  look 
for  the  same  mode  of  life  in  Kashmir  and  Travan- 
core.  Another  cause  for  irregularity  is  the  differ- 
ing nature  of  the  three  chief  religions — Hindu- 
ism, Mohammedanism,  and  Buddhism.  Apparent 
contradictions  in  the  reports  of  missionaries  and 
travelers  may  be  accounted  for  by  this  fact. 

The  larger  part  of  the  population  is  of  Aryan 
origin.  They  are  about  221,000,000  in  number, 
and  occupy  the  territory  not  included  by  N'epal, 
Burma,  and  Assam  and  north  of  19  **  north  lati- 
tude. The  Aryan  race  includes  the  Hindu,  the 
Persian,  the  Greek,  the  Teuton,  the  Celt,  the  Slav, 
and,  in  fact,  most  of  the  peoples  of  Europe  and 
!N"orth  America.  No  student  who  investigates 
the  subject  can  long  doubt  that  the  ancient 
Aryan  ancestors  of  the  Europeans  belonged  to  the 

61 


Heteroge- 
neous People 


Races 


63  The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

same  race  and  once  lived  in  the  same  ancestral 
home  as  the  progenitors  of  the  Aryan  people  in 
India.  The  territory  south  of  the  Aryans  is  largely 
held  by  the  Dravido-Munda — or  non- Aryans — who 
approximate  60,000,000.  Of  these,  56,000,000  are 
Dravidian.  They  probably  came  from  the  north- 
west and  were  pushed  southward  by  the  invading 
Aryans.  The  Indo-Chinese  are  confined  to  Nepal, 
Assam,  and  Burma.  They  number  nearly  twelve 
million  and  are  composed  almost  wholly  of  the 
Tibeto-Burmans  who  entered  India  from  the 
northeast.  While  this  general  language-grouping 
is  not  a  safe  criterion  of  racial  difference,  it  is 
sufficiently  accurate  for  our  purpose. 
Language*  Accordiug  to  the  census  of  1901,  the  languages 
spoken  by  the  people  of  India  number  one  hun- 
dred and  eighty-five,*  sixteen  of  which  are  spoken 
by  more  than  3,000,000  each.'  The  Hindi,'  Ben- 
gali, Marathi,  Panjabi,  Eajasthani,  Gujarati  and 
Oriya  indicate  a  common  origin  at  a  date  not  very 

*Many  of  the  languages  are  only  well  developed 
dialects;  18  are  other  Asiatic  languages  spoken  by 
153,902;  23  are  European  languages  spoken  by 
269,997. 

»In  the  chart  on  p.  63,  Western  Hindi,  Bihari,  and 
Eastern  Hindi  of  the  census  are  given  as  a  total 
under  Hindi. 

'Hindustani,  spoken  by  about  one  hundred  mil- 
lions, is  the  most  modern  of  the  tongues  spoken.  It 
is  simply  the  Hindi  with  a  large  admixture  of  Per- 
sian and  Arabic  words  and  idioms.  In  the  census, 
those  who  use  Hindustani  are  chiefly  given  under  the 
two  divisions  of  the  Hindi  and  the  Bihari,  and  Hin- 
dustani is  not  reported. 


The  People 


63 


far  removed  from  the  historic  period.  These  lan- 
guages are  used  by  about  two  thirds  of  the  peo- 
ple in  the  empire,  and  are  closely  related  to  the 


LANGUAGES  OF   INDIA 

SPOKEN  BY  3.000.000  OR  MORE!  POPULATION 


R3jast/?ani.  1 0,9/ 7.7 /Z 
Kanarese ,  10,365,047 
Gujarat/ ,    S,  928,  50/ 
Or/ya,    9,687,^29 
Burmese ,  7,^7^,396 
A^o/aya/am,  6,  02S,  Z  04 
lahnc/a,  <5,>557.S/7 
S/nc//i/,    Z,006,Z95 
/69  Ot/7ers  spoAen bv/7.9 73,2Z 5 1 Popu/at/on 


Sanskrit,  which  is  not  now  spoken.  Four 
languages  are  spoken  by  as  many  distinct  races, 
inhabiting  the  peninsular  section  of  the  empire. 


•cteristics 


61  The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

On  the  west  the  Kanarese  are  found ;  on  the  east 
the  Telugus;  south  and  east  of  these  two,  the 
Tamil;  and  in  the  extreme  southwest  the  Malay- 
alam  people  have  their  home.  These  people  are 
all  considered  a  branch  of  the  Dravidian  race. 
Many  other  languages  might  be  named,  but  most 
of  them  are  local  tongues  and  consequently  of 
minor  importance.  English  being  the  language 
of  the  government  and  of  higher  education,  is 
rapidly  coming  into  use,  and  many  of  the  edu- 
cated, including  many  Indian  ladies,  are  begin- 
ning to  use  it  in  their  ordinary  conversation. 
Physical  Char.  The  appearance  of  the  people  varies  with  cli- 
mate, environment,  and  occupation  as  well  as  ra- 
cial peculiarities.  The  Aryan  type  in  general  is 
brown,  from  dark  to  coffee-colored,  of  medium 
height,  black  hair,  oval  face,  and  pronounced  lips. 
As  a  rule  they  are  stronger  and  more  courageous 
in  the  north  than  in  the  south.  The  Dravidians 
have  a  darker  complexion,  longer  heads,  irregular 
features, and  are  short  and  squat  in  stature.  The 
Burmans  are  Mongolian  in  type.  Between  the 
sturdy  Aryans  of  the  north  and  the  primitive 
people  of  the  south  there  is  a  great  gulf,  and  there 
are  many  diversities  in  character  and  tempera- 
ment. Among  the  wild  tribes  the  most  interest- 
ing are  the  Andaman  Islanders,  who  bear  a  strik- 
ing resemblance  to  the  pygmies  of  Central  Africa. 
The  Indians,  while  existing  on  scanty  sustenance, 
have  remarkable  powers  of  endurance,  but  in  phy- 


The  People  65 

sical  strength  and  nervous  energy  one  American  is 
equal  to  about  six  of  them. 

The  people  of  India  differ  widely  in  their  intel-  intellectual 
lectual  gifts,  but  taken  as  a  whole,  they  compare  ^^^** 
very  favorably  with  any  other  non-Christian 
people  in  the  world.  The  Bengali  and  Tamil 
young  men  are  sometimes  taunted  for  their  lack 
of  physical  courage,  but  they  can  reply  that  they 
are  able  to  take  and  hold  the  leading  place  in 
intellectual  contests.  The  Tamil  people  boast  that 
their  literature  is  the  most  extensive  as  well  as 
the  best  in  India,  while  the  Bengalis  point  to  their 
daily  and  monthly  periodicals  and  to  the  fourteen 
thousand  students  in  attendance  at  the  colleges 
of  Calcutta.  Some  of  the  Bengali  orators  acquire 
a  really  marvelous  mastery  of  English  style. 
They  also  excel  in  mathematical  studies.  Man 
for  man,  and  boy  for  boy,  any  hundred  students 
taken  from  the  schools  of  Calcutta  will  pass  an 
examination  test  successfully  if  pitted  against  an 
equal  number  of  students  taken  from  the  best 
schools  of  North  America.  Nevertheless,  igno- 
rance and  low  mentality  are  inevitable  in  the 
lower  castes  and  among  the  hill  tribes  who  have 
never  had  an  opportunity  for  study. 

One  element  seems  to  be  strangely  wanting  in   Lack  ot 
the  mental  equipment  of  the  Indian  people ;  they    ^""^^  ivei.css 
invent  nothing.     Their  few  farming  implements 
and  workmen's  tools  are  as  old  as  their  traditions. 
They  neither  improve  the  old  nor  invent  the  new. 


nes* 


6Q  The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

The  whole  non-Christian  world  has  for  centuries 
seemed  to  be  retrogressive  in  its  industries  rather 
than  progressive,  and  it  is  a  most  suggestive  fact 
that  no  mental  awakening  has  been  seen  except  in 
lands  which  have  been  brought  into  vital  touch 
with  Christianity. 
Tolerance  and  In  most  parts  of  India  a  broad  line  of  division 
ptogressive-  -^  drawQ  bctwccn  Hindus  and  Mohammedans. 
The  former  constitute  about  two  thirds  and  the 
latter  about  one  fifth  of  the  population..  The 
Hindu  is  the  more  tolerant  of  the  two,  so  long  as 
his  caste  privileges  are  not  interfered  with,  and  in 
spite  of  his  conservative  instincts  is  more  in  sym- 
pathy with  the  spirit  of  modern  progress  than  his 
Mohammedan  neighbor.  The  first  generation  of 
young  men  educated  up  to  the  European  standard 
was  composed  almost  exclusively  of  Hindus,  but 
in  the  more  recent  years  the  Mohammedans  have 
entered  into  the  general  competition  for  govern- 
ment employment  with  energy,  and  many  leading 
members  of  their  community  manifest  a  very  com- 
mendable public  spirit. 
Education  The  pcoplc  of  India,  when  viewed  in  the  mass, 
are  an  illiterate  people.  According  to  the  last 
census,  out  of  a  total  population  of  294,361,056, 
there  were  149,442,106  males.  Of  these,  134,752,- 
026  were  analphabet,  and  only  14,690,080  could 
read  and  write.  Of  the  143,972,800  females,  only 
996,341  could  read  or  write  or  were  being  in- 
structed.   In  short,  less  than  ten  per  cent,  of  the 


The  People  67 

males  and  about  one  in  144  of  the  females  are  in 
any  sense  literate.  The  cause  of  popular,  as  well 
as  higher  education  has  made  remarkable  progress 
during  the  last  half  century.  The  statistics  com- 
piled to  March  31,  1904,  show  an  enrolment  of 
4,367,685  males  and  515,296  females  in  the  public 
and  private  schools,  and  in  the  colleges  of  the 
country.  It  is  estimated  that  in  British  India, 
22.6  per  cent,  of  the  boys  of  school-going  age 
attend  school,  and  2.6  per  cent,  of  the  girls.  The 
Universities  of  Calcutta,  Madras,  Bombay,  Alla- 
habad, and  the  Punjab  are  at  the  head  of  the 
national  educational  system  in  India.  These  in- 
stitutions offer  no  instruction,  but  are  simply 
examining  boards,  having  numerous  affiliated  col- 
leges in  which  a  prescribed  course  of  higher  edu- 
cation is  given  those  in  attendance.  Art,  medi- 
cal, law,  normal,  engineering,  and  agricultural 
schools  are  increasing  rapidly,  and  female  educa- 
tion is  receiving  special  attention.  The  govern- 
ment of  India  has  made  most  praiseworthy  efforts 
to  found  a  practical  system  of  education,  not  only 
for  the  masses  but  also  for  those  who  prove  them- 
selves capable  of  a  college  training.  The  result 
is  that  an  able  class  of  writers  and  speakers,  who 
reflect  credit  upon  themselves,  and  no  less  upon 
the  government  system  of  education,  is  coming  to 
the  front  and  assuming  positions  of  influence  in 
both  the  political  and  social  world.  An  intense 
desire  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  English  is  nrrani^ 


68 


The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 


Vernacular 
Newspapers 


Cities,  Towns, 
and  Villages 


f ested  among  the  young  men  and  boys  in  all  parts 
of  the  empire,  and  it  is  evident  that  the  next  cen- 
tury will  dawn  upon  millions  in  India  who  will 
speak  and  write  the  English  language  as  correctly 
as  the  average  Englishman  does  at  the  present 
day. 

While  English  will  increase  in  influence,  the 
work  of  missions  must  be  accomplished  through 
the  vernaculars.  Newspapers  and  periodicals  in 
the  native  tongues  are  increasing.  During  1903, 
797  newspapers  were  published.  The  daily  paper 
with  the  largest  circulation  was  the  Bombay 
Samachar,  with  4,000  copies  per  issue.  The 
Hitavadi  of  Calcutta  had  a  weekly  circulation  of 
16,000  copies.  There  are  also  three  other  weekly 
papers  with  a  circulation  of  more  than  13,000 
each.^ 

City  life  affects  a  minority  of  India's  inhabi- 
tants, and  European  influence  is  becoming  more 
pronounced  in  the  large  centers  through  adminis- 
tration and  commerce.  Ninety  per  cent,  of  the 
population  is  in  towns  and  villages,  which,  al- 
though differing  in  size,  do  not  vary  much  in 
general  appearance.  A  town  is  an  overgrown  vil- 
lage and  has  a  magistrate  and  petty  court  to  man- 
age its  judicial  affairs.  The  whole  country  outside 
the  cities  and  towns  is  mapped  out  by  government 
survey  into  district  areas,  called  villages,  and  in 
each  village  area  there  may  be  included  hamlets. 

^Statesman's  Year-Book,  1905,  144. 


Burmese  Coast  Village 


Santal  Village  Courtyard 
Grain  Drying  and  Plows  Behind  Man  Standing 


The  People  G9 


A  village  has  its  headman  who,  aided  by  a  clerk  i 

and   council    of   five,   decides   cases    of    a   moral  j 

nature.    Other  personages  of  importance  in  a  vil-  j 

lage  organization  are  the  village  priest,  the  astrol-  [ 

oger,  schoolmaster,  watchman,  barber,  smith,  shoe-  j 

maker,  carpenter,  and  potter.     Village  lands  are  ' 

around  the  hamlets  and  are  cultivated  by  those 
who  own  them,  but  in  some  parts  whole  villages  : 

are  owned  by  absentee  landlords.    It  is  into  these  ; 

streets  and  lanes  that  the  majority  of  the  mission-  : 

aries  carry  their  message  of  love. 

The  homes  of  wealthy  natives  are  capacious,  and  Homes 
frequently  furnish  accommodations  for  two  hun- 
dred persons.  Those  of  the  middle  and  lower  classes 
are  gloomy  and  unattractive.  Usually  they  are  set 
in  a  courtyard  the  rear  of  which  is  to  the  street,  and 
consist  of  mud  walls,  with  small  windows  set  high, 
earthern  floors,  and  no  chimneys.  In  northern 
India  most  of  the  houses  have  flat  roofs,  but  in 
the  south,  and  in  Burma,  thatched  roofs  are  more 
common.  The  rooms  of  the  women  usually  open 
on  a  veranda.  Within  the  houses  there  is  very 
little  if  any  furniture,  but  in  many  homes  cows, 
calves,  buffaloes,  and  bullocks  are  received  on  inti- 
mate terms.  Sometimes  there  are  crude  bedsteads 
v/'ith  only  a  blanket  for  covering.  As  a  rule  there 
are  some  brass  plates  and  cups,  earthern  cooking 
vessels  and  water  Jars,  perhaps  one  knife,  but  no 
forks.  The  cooking  utensils  are  kept  scrupulously 
clean  by  the    Hindus,   lest   the  food  should   be 


70  The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

defiled,  and  the  laws  of  caste  broken.  Among  the 
Mohammedans  cleanliness  is  not  so  prevalent. 
Domestic  Life  The  domestic  life  of  the  people  of  India  is  that 
of  the  Oriental  world,  and  to  say  this  is  to  remark 
that  it  has  some  features  that  are  utterl^^  foreign 
to  the  ideal  of  a  Christian  home.  When  a  visitor 
to  India  some  years  ago  was  addressing  an  audi- 
ence through  an  Indian  interpreter,  he  used  the 
word  "home."  The  interpreter  abruptly  paused. 
The  speaker  repeated  the  sentence,  when  the 
embarrassed  interpreter  said,  "Sir,  in  the  sense  in 
which  you  use  the  word  ^home,'  there  is  no  equiva- 
lent for  the  word  in  any  Indian  language."  The 
Christian  home  is  the  product  of  vital  Christian- 
ity. To  the  majority  of  the  human  race,  the  home 
is  simply  a  place  in  which  to  live. 

Nine  tenths  of  the  people  subsist  on  rice  and 
curry,  or  cakes  of  wheat,  or  some  variety  of  millet 
baked  on  the  coals  of  a  small  fire  outside  the 
house.  Most  persons  try  to  provide  two  meals  a 
day,  but  many  millions  often  fail  to  do  so.  Scanty 
garments,  made  from  the  cheapest  cotton  fabrics, 
are  provided  for  the  boys  perhaps  once  a  year, 
while  the  girls  fare  a  little  better.  The  clothing 
of  the  average  child  in  the  empire  does  not  cost 
more  than  ten  or  fifteen  cents  a  year,  and  as  a  rule 
children,  until  they  are  three  or  four  years  of  age, 
wear  no  clothing. 

India  may  be  said  to  be  a  rich  country,  inhabited 
by  a  very  poor  people.  For  many  years  it  bore  the 


Food  and 
Clothing 


are  Poor 

I 

1 
I 


The  People  71 

reputation  of  fabulous  wealth,  and  every  Euro- 
pean who  went  there  to  engage  in  business  was 
expected  to  return  laden  with  riches  in  some  form,  j^-^^y,  country, 
but  that  illusion  has  long  since  passed  away.  In-  but  People 
dia  is  no  longer  a  land  of  promise  to  the  adven- 
turer from  abroad,  nor  does  it  bestow  its  wealth 
upon  its  children  except  as  a  reward  for  honest, 
well-directed,  and  vigorous  labor.  A  goodly  num- 
ber of  the  higher  classes  have  inherited  what  in 
Europe  would  be  considered  a  moderate  compe- 
tence, a  few  have  acquired  valuable  property,  and 
a  very  few  are  immensely  wealthy,  but  the  mass 
of  the  people  are  very  poor  indeed.  Common 
laborers  are  easily  secured  for  five  or  six  cents  a 
day,  and  millions  would  be  glad  to  accept  perma- 
nent employment  at  from  twenty-five  to  fifty 
dollars  a  year.  It  is  estimated  that  over  sixty 
millions  of  the  people  constantly  suffer  hunger, 
and  hence  fall  easy  victims  before  drought  and 
famine. 

However,  most  of  this  poverty  is  self-inflicted,  some  causes 
The  insane  passion  for  jewels  and  the  litigious 
spirit  of  the  people  are  an  awful  drain  upon  their 
meager  resources.  The  four  million  beggars  also 
constantly  prey  upon  the  proverbial  charity  of  the 
Hindu.  Frequently  a  man  spends  on  the  marriage 
of  a  son  or  daughter,  especially  the  latter,  more 
than  a  year's  income  and  is  plunged  into  the 
clutches  of  the  money  lender  who  extracts  monthly 
his  two  or  three  per  cent. 


of  Poverty 


72  The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 


Womanhood 


Hindu 
Married  Life 


Mohammedan 
Married  Life 


The  actual  status  of  any  people  can  be  discov- 
ered readily  by  ascertaining  the  position  of 
womanhood  in  the  country  under  review.  When 
this  test  is  applied  to  India,  the  result  is  not  favor- 
able to  the  moral  and  social  standard  maintained 
by  the  people  in  the  long  ages  of  the  past,  nor 
even  in  the  light  and  privileges  of  the  present  day. 
The  Hindu,  Mohammedan,  and  Buddhist  have 
failed  to  appreciate  the  dignity  and  worth  of 
womanhood,  and  have  suffered  both  morally  and 
socially  for  their  failure. 

The  Hindu  brings  his  wife  to  his  father's  home 
where  she  is  under  the  indisputable  sway  of  the 
mother-in-law.  It  is  a  strange  fact  that  where 
womanhood  is  do^i^Titrodden  and  despised,  the 
mother's  authority  is  supreme  over  the  son's  wife. 
In  the  average  Hindu  home,  there  are  three  gener^ 
ations — parents,  sons  and  their  wives,  and  the 
grandchildren.  A  Hindu  wife  is  not  permitted  to 
eat  with  her  husband.  If  they  have  children,  the 
boys  eat  with  the  father,  and  after  they  have  done, 
the  mother  and  daughters.  The  wife  never  walks 
beside  her  husband,  but  always  trudges  along 
behind.  These  customs  prevail  among  all  classes 
of  Hindus. 

The  Mohammedan  wife  is  treated  not  a  whit 
better,  and  is  at  the  caprice  of  her  dictatorial  hus- 
band. A  Mohammedan  usually  takes  his  bride  to 
his  own  home,  but  may  and  usually  does  have 
manv  wives.     The  wealthy  have  large  harems  in 


Brahman  Sub-judge  and  Family- 


Karen  Family,  Burma 


The  People 


73 


Buddhist 
Married  Life 


which  are  the  favorite  and  legitimate  wives.  In 
all  polygamous  homes,  jealousy  and  intrigue  result 
in  terrible  crime,  and  mothers  sometimes  destroy 
the  children  of  their  rivals  in  the  household. 

According  to  Buddhism  the  male  is  considered 
far  superior  to  the  female,  and  her  highest  hope 
and  prayer  is  that  in  some  future  existence  she 
may  be  born  as  a  man.  Unlike  the  customs  among 
the  Hindus  and  ^Mohammedans,  the  young  hus- 
band goes  to  live  with  the  wife's  parents.  The 
wife  is  the  burden-bearer  and  usually  follows  her 
empty-handed  husband  with  a  load  on  her  head. 
While  among  the  Hindus  and  Mohammedans  the 
women  are  kept  in  the  background,  the  Burmese 
women  carry  on  the  trade  and  walk  the  streets 
with  greatest  freedom,  puffing  their  huge  cigars. 

The  home  life  of  the  aborigines  is  exceedinglv   ^^"'«^  ^»*^= 

,  -P,   ,  •  •>  \     of  Aborigines 

simple.  Polygamy  is  quite  common  among  most 
of  them,  but  in  some  cases  only  one  wife  is  per- 
mitted. In  monogamous  households  the  husband, 
wife,  and  children  occupy  the  rudely  constructed 
hut.  In  some  cases  the  older  boys  live  in  public 
houses  provided  for  their  use,  and  the-  older  girls 
are  often  sheltered  in  the  houses  of  widows. 
From  necessity  the  whole  family  is  obliged  to  toil 
hard  for  a  living.  Women  are  held  in  greater 
esteem  than  among  some  of  the  more  civilized 
races  of  India.  Old  people  and  children  are  cared 
for,  and,  in  some  cases,  aged  men  are  almost 
acknowledged  as  patriarchs. 


74  The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 


Zenana 


Polygamy  Polygamy  prevails  to  a  great  extent  among  all 
classes  except  the  poorest,  and  rests  as  a  social 
blight  upon  the  people.  It  is  more  common 
among  the  Mohammedans  than  among  the  Hindus 
and  others.  In  the  case  of  the  Hindu,  if  a  son 
has  been  born  into  the  family,  the  father  does  not 
usually  seek  a  second  wife,  but  the  wife  who  has 
no  son  often  becomes  an  object  of  pity  to  those 
who  know  her.  The  complications  which  some- 
times arise  in  a  polygamous  household  are  fre- 
qilently  distressing  and  always  disgusting. 

The  practice  of  seclusion  affects  only  a  very 
small  per  cent,  even  of  the  high-caste  Hindu 
women.  The  custom  probably  grew  out  of  the 
fear  of  Hindus  that  Mohammedans  would  steal 
their  wives  and  daughters.  Those  who  are  behind 
the  purdah  often  consider  their  lot  an  indication 
of  aristocratic  superiority,  although  they  are 
wretchedly  ignorant  and  may  never  have  enjoyed 
a  ride  or  walked  outside  of  their  gloomy  quarters. 
Where  Mohammedan  influence  does  not  prevail, 
women  are  permitted  a  large  degree  of  freedom. 

The  worst  misfortune  that  can  befall  a  Hindu 
woman  is  to  be  unmarried.  This  idea  is  the  result 
of  the  belief  that  a  woman  can  have  no  social 
status  or  religious  destiny  apart  from  man. 
Hence,  parents  who  cannot  find  a  suitable  match 
for  their  daughters  join  them  in  wedlock  to  a 
professional  bridegroom  who  is  prepared  to  marry 
any  number  for  a  reasonable  income. 


Marriage  a 
Necessity 


The  People 


75 


Marriage  is  in  many  respects  a  mercenary  tran- 
saction and  may  take  place  when  the  bride  is  but 
a  helpless  babe,  but  the  marriage  is  legal,  and  if 
the  husband  dies  the  baby  wife  is  a  widow  and  can 
never  re-marry.  A  widower  may  marry  a  hundred 
wives  if  he  sees  fit  to  do  so.  Many  of  the  mar- 
riages are  negotiated  for  business  or  social  reasons, 
and  if  one  or  more  children  are  sacrificed,  what 
does  it  matter?  One  of  the  terrible  blights  upon 
the  home  is  the  practice  among  the  Hindus  of 
child  marriage.  The  census  of  1901  reports  nearly 
nine  million  child  wives  under  fifteen  years  of  age. 
This  horrible  custom  often  initiates  the  child  into 
motherhood  at  ten  years  of  age,  which  is  physi- 
cally, mentally,  and  morally  disastrous  both  to  the 
child-mother  and  offspring.  Much  effort  has  been 
put  forth,  especially  by  missionaries,  to  make  early 
marriage  impossible,  but  the  only  progress  made 
thus  far  is  the  passage  of  the  "Age  of  Consent 
Bill"  in  1891,  whereby  the  age  of  cohabitation  was 
raised  from  ten  to  twelve. 

The  widows  of  India  numbered  in  1901,  25,- 
891,936,  of  whom  391,147  were  under  fifteen  years 
of  age.  Some  families  are  anxious  to  contract 
an  alliance  with  a  branch  of  caste  higher  than 
their  own,  and  to  do  so  they  sacrifice  a  little  child 
by  marrying  her  to  an  old  man,  who  receives  a 
payment  in  money  for  conceding  the  privilege. 
Very  strange  relationships  are  created  in  this  way. 
A  Bengali  gentleman,  in  explaining  the  system, 


Child  Mar- 
riage and 
■Widowhood 


Widowhood 


76  The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

once  remarked  that  he  had  sixty  grandmothers. 
Many  of  these  grandmothers  were  probably  little 
girls.  The  wrong  that  is  done  to  these  children 
pursues  them  through  life.  They  are  not  only 
regarded,  but  treated,  as  sufferers  for  some  wrong 
act  committed  by  them,  very  possibly  in  a  previous 
existence  or  incarnation.  They  have  their  heads 
shaved,  are  forced  to  sit  apart  from  the  family, 
are  obliged  to  fast  weekly,  are  deprived  of  many 
kinds  of  food,  and  are  taught  to  regard  themselves 
as  victims  of  evil  fortune.  Intelligent  Hindus  are 
beginning  to  understand  how  base  and  baneful 
this  custom  is,  and  some  prominent  men  oppose 
and  denounce  it  with  great  vigor.  One  wealthy 
gentleman  offered  liberal  rewards  to  any  young 
man  who  would  select  a  bride  from  the  so-called 
widows,  and  in  recent  years  several  young  men  of 
courage  have  married  widows  in  utter  defiance  of 
public  opinion,  and  at  the  risk  of  public  hostility 
and  social  ostracism. 
Widow's  The  widow's  funeral  pyre  of  tradition  and  his- 

tory tells  the  whole  story  of  the  utterly  selfish  and 
cruel  ideal  which  Hinduism  has  long  cherished 
concerning  women.  The  faithful  wife  or  wives 
must  prove  their  devotion  by  suffering  a  horribly 
cruel  death  on  the  late  husband's  funeral  pyre.  In 
many  parts  of  India  the  landscape  is  dotted  with 
little  temples  or  shrines  each  marking  the  spot 
where  some  wretched  woman,  or  perhaps  several  of 
them,  were  burned  with  the  body  of  a  possibly 


Funeral    Pyre 


The  People 


77 


worthless  man.  This  was  done  as  a  tribute  to 
an  evidence  of  true  wifely  devotion.  It  will  be 
said  that  this  was  owing  to  the  dense  ignorance 
of  ages  long  passed,  but  it  is  only  the  strictest  vigi- 
lance on  the  part  of  the  authorities  that  prevents 
a  continuance  of  this  custom  in  various  parts  of 
India  at  the  present  time. 

The  social  and  religious  customs  of  the  Hindu  Temple  c-iris 
demand  a  large  number  of  dancing  girls,  or  priest- 
esses, who  in  infancy  are  dedicated  to  the  service 
and  maintenance  of  tlie  temples,  and  are  called 
"the  servants  of  the  gods.^'  They  are  the  endowed 
ministers  of  the  temples,  and  commerce  with  them 
is  regarded  as  meritorious  and  an  act  of  devotion 
to  the  idol  whose  brides  they  are.  The  institution 
of  the  nautch  is  based  upon  the  example  of  the 
god  Krishna.  The  nautch  girls  are  taught  in 
early  childhood  to  read,  dance,  and  sing,  and  in- 
structed in  every  act  of  seduction.  The  muralis 
are  devoted  to  the  god  Khandoba,  a  deity  of  the 
Maratha  country.  They  are  licensed  by  law  and 
dedicated  to  lives  of  impurity  in  the  name  of  reli- 
gion. These  girls  are  invited  to  the  homes  of 
native  gentlemen  on  nearly  all  social  occasions. 
They  are  highly  respected,  and  without  the  jing- 
ling of  their  foot-bells  a  dwelling  place  is  not 
purified. 

The   separation    of    the   people   into    different   Many  caste 
castes'  has  long  been  known  to  be  a  distinctive   Divisions 

^The  word   caste  came  from  the  Portuguese  word 
casta,  meaning  race. 


78         The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

peculiarity  of  Hinduism.  This  custom  is  not 
only  a  characteristic  of  the  social  life  of  the  people, 
but  also  has  much  to  do  with  their  religious  tenets 
and  usages.  In  the  outside  world  it  is  generally 
supposed  that  the  entire  community  is  divided  into 
only  four  classes  or  castes,  but  while  this  may  have 
been  the  case  in  former  days,  it  is  by  no  means  a 
correct  idea  of  Hindu  caste  to-day.  So  far  from 
the  classes  or  castes  being  limited  to  four,  they  are 
divided  and  sub-divided  until  the  student  of  the 
Hindu  social  system  becomes  lost  in  the  maze  of 
interminable  lines  of  separation,  all  of  which  have 
the  sanction  of  religion,  and  the  infraction  of  any 
of  which  brings  sure  and  immediate  ruin  to  the 
transgressor.  The  whole  system  is  complicated  in 
the  extreme,  and  it  requires  close  study  and  care- 
ful observation  on  the  part  of  strangers  to  be  able 
to  understand  it. 
Origin  of  At  the  outsct  it  is  probable  that  no  special  sanc- 

tity was  attributed  to  the  system.  Four  classes  of 
the  community  were  recognized  by  the  Code  of 
Manu\  and  in  the  simple  civilization  of  those 
remote  days  such  a  division  no  doubt  seemed  as 
harmless  as  it  was  natural.  The  religious  leaders 
or  Brahmans  assumed  first  place  and  this  probably 
gave  a  certain  sanctity  to  the  whole  plan  in  an 
age  of  superstition  and  ignorance.  The  warriors, 
called  Rajputs  or  Kshattriyas  naturally  took  the 
second  place,  the  agricultural  class,  or  Vaisyas,  the 

'One  of  the  sacred  books  of  the  Hindus  containing 
the  laws  of  caste. 


Four  Classes 


The  People  79 

third.  The  conquered  non-Aryan  tribes  who  be- 
came the  serfs  were  called  the  Sudras.  The  divi- 
sion was  not  made  nor  recognized  in  a  day,  but 
slowly  gained  ground,  until  it  at  last  received  the 
solemn  sanction  of  religion  and  became  entrenched 
in  the  double  stronghold  of  religion  and  social 
organization.  Once  firmly  established,  the  spirit 
of  caste  rapidly  took  possession  of  the  public  mind, 
and  began  to  exercise  a  baneful  influence  upon  all 
classes  of  people.  Instead  of  resisting  the  assump- 
tion of  superiority  on  the  part  of  the  high  castes^ 
men  in  the  lower  ranks  began  to  assume  superior 
rights  over  their  own  inferiors,  and  in  time  the 
whole  system  became  an  elaborate  plan  to  enable 
each  rank  of  society  to  depress  and  even  oppress 
those  who  chanced  to  be  a  little  lower  in  the  social 
scale.  To  use  the  illustration  once  given  by  an 
American  military  gentleman  in  Calcutta,  it  has 
become,  ^'a  social  ladder  on  which  every  man  kisses 
the  feet  of  the  man  above  him,  and  kicks  the  face 
of  the  man  below  him." 

A  broad  line  of  demarcation  exists  in  India  AFifthciasa 
between  that  part  of  the  population,  on  the  one 
hand,  which  is  included  within  the  pale  of  the 
four  castes  for  which  India  has  been  so  long  cele- 
brated, and  the  very  large  section  of  inhabitants 
known  by  various  terms  such  as  outcastes,  pariahs, 
sweepers,  and  other  similar  terms,  on  the  other.  In 
Bengal   the    term    nama-Sudra,*   which    literally 

^In  Southern  India  the  name  is  Panchama. 


so  The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

means  sub-sudra  is  applied  to  all  who  occupy  a 
lower  social  position  than  the  four  traditional 
classes  which  have  long  been  incorrectly  supposed 
to  include  all  the  inhabitants  of  India.  The  Su- 
dras  are  the  lowest  of  the  four  classes  and  were 
once  supposed  to  be  outcastes,  but  as  compared 
v/ith  the  millions  below  them  in  the  social  scale, 
these  people  are  regarded  now  as  relatively  respect- 
able. Some  twenty  years  ago  a  government  census 
officer  in  Bombay  applied  the  term  "depressed 
classes"  to  all  the  tribes  and  classes  v/ho  are  found 
below  the  line  of  social  respectabilit}^  and  this 
term  has  now  come  into  general  use.  It  includes 
nearly  all  who  follow  mechanical  trades  of  what- 
ever kind,  altliough  these  again  are  graded  with 
great  care.  The  shoemaker  is  much  lower  in  the 
social  scale  than  the  blacksmith,  while  the  black- 
smith is  beneath  the  carpenter.  The  lowest  of  all 
is  the  sweeper,  who  both  in  city  and  country  vil- 
lage is  regarded  as  an  utter  outcast. 

Some  of  the  principal  present  day  rules  of  caste 
are  as  follows: 
^°™®  (1)   Intermarriage  impossible;   (2)  change  of 

occupation  forbidden;  (3)  only  persons  of  the 
same  caste  may  eat  together;  (4)  meals  must  not 
be  cooked  except  by  a  person  of  the  same  caste  or 
by  a  Brahman;  (5)  no  man  of  any  inferior  caste 
may  touch  the  rations  or  enter  the  cook  room; 
(6)  no  water  or  liquor  contaminated  by  the  touch 
of  a  man  of  inferior  caste  can  be  used — rivers. 


The  People 


81 


tanks,  and  large  bodies  of  water  excepted ;  (7)  arti- 
cles of  dry  food  are  only  contaminated  if  they  pass 
throngh  the  hands  of  a  man  of  inferior  caste,  but- 
tered or  greased;  (8)  cow^s  flesh,  pork,  fowl,  and 
similar  meats  are  prohibited;  (9)  an  ocean  voyage 
is  forbidden,  and  the  boundaries  of  India  must 
not  be  crossed. 

The  name  of  the  avocation  does  not  by  any 
means  correctly  describe  the  work  or  occupation 
of  all  the  members  of  the  caste.  For  instance,  the 
shoemakers  are  reported  in  the  last  census  as  num- 
bering 1,957,291,  whereas  the  people  belonging  to 
the  shoemaker  caste  number  more  than  ten  mil- 
lion. Large  numbers  of  the  so-called  leather 
workers  are  farmers,  and  the  whole  community 
represents  a  population  almost  equal  to  that  of  the 
Brahmans. 

In  former  years  it  was  considered  an  outrage 
upon  the  rights  of  the  higher  castes  for  any  mem- 
bers of  the  outcasts'  community  to  learn  to  read, 
or  to  aspire  to  any  position  regarded  as  the  pecu- 
liar privilege  of  the  higher  castes.  Even  at  the 
present  day  it  sometimes  happens  that  the  people 
who  consider  education  as  a  special  prerogative  of 
their  own,  will  pull  down  or  burn  the  humble  little 
buildings  in  which  the  low  caste  children  are 
taught.  In  many  parts  of  the  country,  before  the 
English  era,  the  low- caste  people  were  obliged  to 
leave  the  road  when  they  saw  a  higher  caste  man 
approaching.     Strangest  and  most  outrageous  of 


Avocation 
does  not 
Describe 
Occupation 


Hostility 
toward  Lower 
Caste  People 


82  The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

all,  low- caste  women  in  some  parts  of  India  were 
not  allowed  to  dress  themselves  with  the  modesty 
which  natural  instinct  would  suggest,  lest  they 
might  seem  to  trench  upon  the  privileges  of  the 
high- caste  people. 
Inconvenience        rpj^^  followinsT  is  an  lUustration  of  the  inconven- 

of  Caste  .  .  , 

lUuEtrated  ICUCC  ot   Castc  : 

"One  day  I  found  a  man  and  his  wife  lying  in 
a  shed  and  both  unconscious.  The  husband  died 
shortly  after,  and  as  the  wife  showed  considerable 
strength  I  had  her  removed  to  our  plague  hospi- 
tal, in  order  that  she  might  receive  suitable  nurs- 
ing and  proper  care.  On  her  arrival  at  the 
hospital  I  ordered  milk  to  be  given  her,  but 
on  visiting  her  in  her  ward  I  found  the  milk  in 
a  cup  by  her  side  untouched.  She  made  signs  to 
me  on  my  inquiry  that  the  people  who  brought 
the  milk  were  not  of  her  caste,  and  therefore  she 
could  not  take  the  cup  out  of  their  hands,  nor 
had  she  strength  to  lift  the  cup  from  the  ground 
to  her  lips.  I  raised  her  head  myself  and  put  pil- 
lows behind  it  and  held  the  cup  in  my  own  hands, 
but  she  closed  her  eyes  and  gave  me  such  a  look 
that  I  saw  I  had  to  do  something  else.  After 
some  search  I  found  in  the  hospital  a  woman  of 
her  caste  taking  care  of  a  member  of  her  family 
who  was  also  down  with  the  plague.  I  sent  this 
woman  to  give  her  the  milk,  but  the  moment  she 
looked  in  at  the  open  door  of  the  ward  she  ex- 
claimed, *I  can't  touch  her;  she  is  in  mourning 


The  People  83 

for  the  dead/  and  she  went  away.    I  then  found  1 

this  woman's  little  girl,  and  by  offering  to  bring  \ 

her  a  doll  when  I  returned  the  next  morning  I  i 

induced  her  to  hold  the  cup  to  the  woman's  lips  ] 

so  that  she  might  drink.     But  I  had  to  stand  | 

outside  the   door  while   she  was   drinking,   as   I  ! 

was   an  outcast   myself.     When   I   returned   the  j 

next  morning  with  the  doll  in  my  pocket  to  ful-  j 

fill   my   promise,   the   little   girl   was    dead   and  j 

buried."'  \ 

Some  of  the  advantages  of  the  system  are:  an   Merits  and  j 

economic  division  of  labor,  the  promotion  of  clean-   ^^'^^  o^the  | 

'  ^  Caste  System 

liness,  restraint  of  morals  in  certain  directions,  i 

and  the  keeping  alive  of  a  learned  class  that  might 
otherwise  have  passed  out  of  existence.  On  the 
other  hand,  caste  is  a  tyrannical  force  of  the  worst  ' 

sort,  every  man  must  surrender  his  own  individu- 
ality and  submit  to  be  bound  to  an  ignorant  com- 
munity. It  is  a  source  of  physical  degeneracy 
because  it  compels  marriage  between  narrow  lines 
of  consanguinity.  It  forbids  sympathy  beyond 
one's  particular  caste.  It  restricts  a  man  from 
engaging  in  any  trade  which  is  not  presented  by 
his  caste  custom.    It  chokes  or  strangles  ambition,  ' 

aspiration,   and   progress.      It   prohibits   natural  ; 

unity  and  fosters  jealousy  and  antagonism.  i 

What  is  the  secret  of  the  distressing  social  con-   Secret  of  ; 

ditions  of  the  people  ?    It  is  not  found  in  the  bad   ^°"'*^  ^''^^''         J 
quality  of  the  soil,  nor  in  the  oppression  of  the  : 

^Tfie  Missionary  Herald,  May,  1906,  219.  ! 


84  The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

laborers,  nor  in  the  extortion  of  the  tax  gatherers, 
nor  in  the  idle  habits  of  the  people.  The  source  of 
the  awful  plight  of  the  millions  of  this  great 
empire  is  the  same  as  that  which  accounts  for  the 
terrible  circumstances  of  the  great  mass  of  the 
people  in  all  non-Christian  lands.  It  is  sin. 
When  we  speak  of  "life  in  Christ'^  we  use  a  phrase 
with  a  broader  meaning  than  we  at  first  perceive. 
Life  in  the  spiritual  realm  gives  renewed  vitality 
to  the  affections,  stimulates  the  mental  powers, 
creates  ambition  to  improve  in  a  general  way,  and, 
in  short,  endows  a  community  with  that  peculiar 
stimulus  which  we  call  the  spirit  of  improvement. 
Christian  converts  in  India  do  not  fail  to  develop 
a  new  ambition  and  desire  to  improve  their  con- 
dition. Their  children  are  taught,  old  trammels 
are  broken,  and  very  many  of  them  advance  as  far 
in  a  generation  as  their  non-Christian  neighbors 
have  done  in  a  centur}^  or  perhaps  in  ten  centuries. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  CHAPTER  III 

Aim:   To  Realize  the  Imperative  Need  of  Indian 
Society  for  Christianity 

I... The  Limitations  of  Indian  Society. 

1.*  What  are  the  influences  making  for  popular 
separation  or  union  m  India  as  compared  with 
the  United  States  and  Canada?  Compare  in 
detail,  and  give  reasons  for  your  views. 

2.*  What  is  the  relative  likelihood  in  the  two  coun- 
tries of  a  new  idea  becoming  common  prop- 
erty? 


The  People  S5 

3.  Until  recent  times  to  what  extent   did  the  in- 

vaders have  any  regard  for  the  welfare  of  so- 
ciety in  general? 

4.  Why  has  her  contact  with  the  rest  of  the  world 

brought  so  little  of  social  progress  to  India? 

5.*  What  to  your  mind  are  the  three  greatest  evils 
of  caste?     Explain  your  views. 

6.*  Try  to  picture  what  life  would  become  in  this 
country  if  caste  restrictions  were  suddenly  im- 
posed? 

1*  Which  of  the  social  surroundings  of  Indian 
childhood  should  you  most  dread  for  a  child 
of  your  own? 

8.*  Give  several  reasons  why  you  should  object 
to  having  your  sister  brought  up  from  child- 
hood under  Hindu  auspices? 

9.*  State  in  order  of  importance  the  practical  meas- 
ures you  should  take  to  alleviate  the  conditions 
of  Hindu  women. 

11... What  Indian  Civic  Life  Needs. 

10.  Do  you  consider  India  ready  for  popular  self- 
government? 

11.*  What  is  there  in  Indian  society  to  develop  in- 
dividual opinion? 

12.  How  much  education  and  personal  development 

do  you  think  a  man  ought  to  have  before  being 
allowed  to  vote? 

13.  In  what  percentage  of  Indian  society  has  this 
standard  been  attained? 

14.  How  broad  should  a  man's  sympathy  be  before 

he  is  allowed  to  vote?    W^hy? 

15.  To  what  extent  does  Indian  society  meet  this 
requirement? 

16.*  By  what  processes  should  you  endeavor  to  fit  a 
body  of  Indian  villagers  for  useful  citizenship? 


SG  The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

17.  How  should  you  try  to  secure  helpful  coopera- 

tion and  sympathy  between  castes? 

18.  How  should  you  endeavor  to  cultivate  public 
spirit? 

19.*  What  traits  of  character  should  public  educa- 
tion in  India  most  seek  to  develop? 

Ill ..  .Inadequacy  of  Purely  Secular  Methods. 

20.  Is  the  Hindu  truly  conscientious  in  observing 

CvHste  restrictions? 
21.*  In  what  spirit  do  you  think  you  should  ap- 
proach such  conscientiousness? 

22.  What  has  been  the  relation  of  religion  to  the 

prejudices  and  customs  of  the  Hindu? 

23.  Do  you  think  that  such  customs  could  be  suc- 
cessfully changed  entirely  by  secular  methods? 

21.*  What  would  be  the  effect  on  character  if  they 
could? 

lY ..  .Christianity  the  Only  Solution. 

25.*   What   needs   indispensable   to   Indian  society 

would  Christianity  supply? 
26.*  How  will  it  effect  personal  initiative  and  the 

sense     of     responsibility?       Indicate     results 

likely  to  follow. 
27.*  What  effect  will   it  have  on  public  opinion? 

On  national  feeling? 
28.  Do  you  see  any  hope  for  Indian  society  or  any 

other  society   apart  from  the  love  of   God  as 

manifested  in  Jesus  Christ? 

Referknces   fob   Advanced  Study. — Chapteb   III 
X . . .  Social  Life. 

Beach:  India  and  Christian  Opportunity,  87-106. 
Jones:  India's  Problem:  Krishna  or  Christ,  23-26. 


The  People  87 

i 

Lilly:   India  and  Its  Problems,  XVI.  | 

Stewart:  Life  and  Work  in  India,  VI.  I 

Stock:  Notes  on  India  for  Missionary  Students,  II.  J 

i 

11..  .Aboriginal  Trihes. 

Cloiigh:   Tales  of  a  Pariah  Tribe,  1-31.  ^ 

Hunter:  Brief  History  of  the  Indian  Peoples,  HI.  ; 

Hurst:    Indika,  XI.  j 

Mitchell:  In  Southern  India,  XXV.  i 

III. .  .l>\'idO'Wliood. 

Denning:  Mosaics  from  India,  V.  ; 
Dubois  and  Beauchamp:  Hindu  Manners,  Customs, 

and  Ceremonies,  Pt.  II,  Chaps.  XVIII,  XIX.  \ 

Fuller:    The  Wrongs  of  Indian  Womanhood,  IV.  j 

Guinness:     Across     India     at    the    Dawn    of    the  I 

Twentieth  Century,  XV.  i 

Storrow:   Our  Sisters  in  India,  IX.  i 

lY. .  .Child  Marriage  and  Child  Life.  ! 

Fuller:  The  Wrongs  of  Indian  Womanhood,  III,  X.  i 

Holcomb:    Bits  About  India,  XIII.  ; 

Rowe:   Every-day  Life  in  India,  XI.  ( 
Storrow:   Our  Sisters  in  India,  V,  VI. 


THE  RELIGIONS 


CHAPTEE  IV  j 
THE  RELIGIONS 

The  people  of  India  might  justly  lay  claim  to   a  Religious 

the  compliment  paid  by  the  Apostle  Paul  to  the      ^^^^  \ 
men  of  Athens  in  his  first  address  in  that  city. 
They  are  certainly  very  religious,  and  have  been 
so  from  time  immemorial.     The  aborigines  scat- 
tered in  the  jungles  of  the  land,  while  ignorant, 

and  unable  to  make  any  statement  of  their  reli-  ! 

gious  belief,  are  nevertheless  possessed  of  various  i 

religious  notions,  while  every  grade  and  shade  of  I 

society  from  these  half  wild  people  to  the  univer-  j 

sity  graduates  of  the  present  day,  have  a  distinct  j 

religious  belief  which  is  never  concealed.    Practi-  j 

cally  this  rule  is  universal,  hence  it  is  not  diffi-  j 

cult  for  the  government  to  obtain  accurate  reli-  • '[ 

gious  statistics,  although  in  India,  as  elsewhere,  j 

cold  figures  fail  to  show  the  moral  strength  of  the  1 

various   sects   or   parties   represented.      The   last  ■ 

census  gives  the  following  statistics:  ! 

I 

Jews    18,228       Animists    8,584,148  I 

Parsees    04,190       Buddhists    9,476,759  I 

Jains    1,334,148       Mohammedans.    62,458,077  I 

Sikhs    2,195,339       Hindus 207,147,026  ■, 

Christians    2,923,241       Others    129,900 


92  The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

Distribution  "The  ppovinces  containing  most  of  the  Jews  are 
e  igions  jgQjj-^i^^y^  which  is  the  habitat  of  more  than  three 
fourths  of  them,  Bengal,  and  Madras.  Bombay 
is  likewise  the  home  of  almost  eighty-four  per 
cent,  of  India's  Parsees,  making  it  the  greatest 
stronghold  of  that  faith  in  the  world.  Nearly  half 
of  the  Jains  are  also  found  in  Bomba}^,  while  Cen- 
tral India,  and  Eajputana  especially,  contain  most 
of  the  remainder.  The  Sikhs  are  almost  wholly 
found  in  their  early  home  in  the  Punjab.  Catholic 
and  Protestant  Christians  are  fairly  well  distrib- 
uted over  the  empire ;  though  if  a  line  were  drawn 
due  west  from  Calcutta  about  four  fifths  of  them 
would  be  found  south  of  it,  two  thirds  of  the  entire 
Christian  population  being  in  the  single  province 
of  Madras.  Bengal,  Bombay,  and  Burma  are  the 
provinces  coming  next  in  the  number  of  resident 
Christians.  Holders  of  animistic  beliefs  are  the 
most  numerous  in  Assam,  the  Central  Provinces, 
and  Bengal,  with  a  goodly  number  in  Burma, 
Madras,  and  Central  India.  The  Buddhists  have 
been  driven  out  of  their  original  home,  and  are 
now  almost  wholly  confined  to  Ceylon,  Burma,  and 
the  rim  of  adjacent  Bengal,  though  Kashmir,  bor- 
dering on  Tibet,  also  has  some  35,000.  Mohamme- 
danism is  strongest  in  Xorth  India,  Bengal  being 
the  home  of  more  than  twenty-five  millions  of 
Moslems,  and  the  Punjab  standing  next  in  order. 
Madras  and  Haidarabad  are  the  two  southern 
provinces  having  the  largest  number  of  Moslems. 


J.1   U.-LlXUCi" 


ing  less  than  100,000  people,  the  Parsees  have  made 
^Beach,  India  and  Christian  Opportunity,  109. 


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Thousaodei 

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The  Religions  93  ^ 

Of  all  religionists  the  Hindus  are  by  far  the 
most  ubiquitous,  abounding  in  all  sections  except  i 

Burma,  Baluchistan,  and  Kashmir,  where  either  I 

Buddhism   or   Mohammedanism  is  so  prevalent.  j 

Madras,  the  United  Provinces,  and  Bengal  have  j 

the  largest  number  of  Hindus.''^  J 

Taking    one    thousand    natives,   and    selecting   Proportion  j 

them  from  the  different  religions,  the  proportion   °^  Religionists     , 
will  be  as  follows:  Hindus,  704;  Mohammedans,  ^ 

212 ;  Buddhists,  32 ;  Animists,  29 ;  Christians,  10 ;  j 

Sikh,  7!/2  ;  Jains,  45/2-    The  remaining  one  in  the  I 

thousand  includes  the  Parsees,  Jews,  and  others.  ] 

From  the  preceding  statistics  it  is  evident  that   Great  i 

the  great  native  religions  of  India  are  Hinduism,     ^  '^'°"^  ; 

Mohammedanism,  and  Buddhism.   On  this  account  J 

the  minor  faiths  will  receive  less  attention.     The  ! 

followers  of  Judaism  are  so  few  in  number  that 
they  lose  significance  and  will  not  receive  further 
comment. 

The  Parsees  are  the  merchant  princes,  bank-  Parsees 
ers,  and  financial  operators  of  the  empire;  while 
they  are  nearly  all  located  in  Bombay  and  its  en- 
virons, there  is  scarcely  a  city  of  note  in  Arabia, 
Baluchistan,  and  Burma  where  they  are  not  rep- 
resented commercially.  They  are  known  for  their 
integrity,  generosity,  and  progressiveness.  About 
seventy-five  per  cent,  of  them  are  literate,  and  they 
eagerly  accept  educational  advantages.  Number- 
ing less  than  100,000  people,  the  Parsees  have  made 

^Beach,  India  and  Christian  Opportunity,  109. 


94  The  Ckristian  Conquest  of  India 

more  stir  in  the  world  than  any  other  sect  in  pro- 
portion to  their  population..  They  are  the  residue 
of  one  of  the  world^s  oldest  religions,  Zoroastri- 
anism^  and  were  driven  from  Persia  to  India  in 
the  seventh  century  by  the  fierce  persecutions  of 
the  Mohammedans.  It  is  thought  that  Hinduism 
and  Zoroastrianism  had  a  common  origin,  but  the 
former  has  swung  far  from  the  original  tenets  of 
Dualism  and  Monotheism  to  idolatry  and  Pan- 
theism.""  The  faith  of  the  Parsee  is  one  of  the 
purest  of  ethnic  religions.  Their  distinguishing 
theory  is  Dualism.  They  are  monotheists,  and  be- 
lieve that  in  the  beginning  the  Eternal,  Supreme, 
and  Infinite  One  produced  two  other  divine  spirits, 
the  Spirit  of  Good  and  the  Spirit  of  Evil,  or  the 
Spirit  of  Light  and  the  Spirit  of  Darkness.  They 
believe  in  the  resurrection  and  equality  of  all 
beings  before  God.  Their  chief  object  of  worship 
is  fire,  and  water  is  almost  as  sacred. 
jaias  Of  the  nine  religious  divisions  of  the  empire 
the  Jains  occupy  the  seventh  place  in  number.  Un- 
der the  leadership  of  a  Buddhist  priest^  they  broke 
away  from  Buddhism  about  a  thousand  years  ago, 
and  in  a  Buddhist  country  would  not  attract  much 

^Zoroaster,  the  founder,  whose  followers  were  fire 
worshipers,  lived  about  3,000  B.  C. 

-Monotheism,  believing  in  the  existence  of  one 
divine  principle  or  one  God;  Dualism,  of  two  such 
principles,  or  two  gods,  the  one  good  and  the  other 
evil;  Pantheism,  the  view  that  all  is  divine,  or  that 
God  is  in  everything. 

=Some  authorities  claim  that  Jainism  was  a  revolt 
against  Hinduism  contemporaneous  with  Buddhism. 


The  Eeligions                           95  ; 

attention  as  a  distinct  religious  body.     Like  the  ' 

Buddhists  they  deny  the  authority  and  infallibil-  \ 

ity    of    the    Vedas,^  but  on  the  other  hand  they  J 

observe  the  rules  of  caste  and  worship  some  of  the  1 
Hindu  deities.    They  are  wealthy,  intelligent,  and 
in  some  respects  progressive,  but  their  chief  pecu- 
liarity is  their  abnormal  regard  for  life,  whether 

of  man,  beast,  bird,  or  insect.    They  are  noted  for  ; 

the  hospitals  which  they  maintain  for  animals,  in  ; 
which  cats,  dogs,  decrepit  horses,  diseased  cows, 

and  insects  are  found,  and  are  regarded  as  equally  i 
sacred  because  possessed  of  the  principle  of  life. 
In  the  Bombay  papers  a  report  of  the  admissions 

to  these  hospitals  is  sometimes  published,  and  in  < 

like  manner  a  list  of  those  animals  discharged  as  .] 

cured.    Snakes  are  not  excluded,  but  children  are  | 

not  admitted.    It  is  said  that  even  vermin  are  tol-  | 

crated  and  protected.     And  yet  these  people  are  ;.! 

above  the  average  in  India  in  point  of  intelligence,  j 

and  are  reckoned  among  the  progressive  classes.  1 

The  Sikhs  number  2,195,339  souls.     Although   sikhs  j 

originally  they  separated  from  Mohammedanism,  | 

they  are  gradually  being  absorbed  by  Hinduism.  t 

Their  founder,  a  religious  teacher  named  Nanak,  ] 
lived  about  four  hundred  years  ago,  and  gathered 

around  him  a  band  of  disciples,  somewhat  after  the  i 

fashion  of  the  founder  of  Buddhism.    He  rejected  j 

caste   and   idol    worship,    and   his   followers    are  J 

tolerant  toward  other  religions.     Their  men  are  '] 

^Sacred  books  of  Hinduism.  ! 

I 


96  The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

among  the  best  soldiers  in  India,  and  are  found  at 
all  English  settlements  along  the  seacoast,  from 
Calcutta  to  Shanghai.  Living  among  these  Sikhs 
are  many  low-caste  people  who  have  adopted  more 
or  less  of  their  religious  ideas  and  practices,  and 
are  known  as  Mazabi-Sikhs,  that  is,  Sikhs  in  reli- 
gion. The  main  body  constitutes  a  race  as  well  as 
a  religious  sect,  and  in  many  respects  they  are 
more  favorable  to  the  work  of  the  Christian  mis- 
sionary than  the  Hindus  and  Mohammedans. 
Animism  Among  the  followers  of  the  different  religions 
mentioned  in  the  census  table,  about  eight  and  one 
half  millions  are  Animists.  The  aboriginal  tribes 
represented  by  this  faith  in  Bengal,  Madras, 
and  the  Central  Provinces  are  the  Santals, 
Bhils,  and  Gonds;  in  Assam  the  Garos,  Khasis, 
and  J^agas;  in  Burma  the  Chins,  Kachins,  and 
Karens.  The  seven  characteristic  tenets  that  may 
be  generally  though  not  universally  ascribed  to 
Animism  are :  ( 1 )  "A  supreme,  or  at  least  a  supe- 
rior Being  is  acknowledged  though  scarcely  wor- 
shiped; (2)  other  spirits  are  also  acknowledged, 
which  are  almost  malignant  and  have  to  be  pro- 
pitiated; (3)  bloody  offerings  are  necessary,  as  at 
least  a  part  of  the  propitiation;  (4)  wild  dances 
are  performed  in  the  worship;  (5)  little  impor- 
tance is  attached  to  idols,  temples,  or  priests; 
(6)  possession  by  spirits  is  believed  in;  (7)  witch- 
craft is  much  practiced."^ 
^Mitchell,  The  Great  Religions  of  India.  252. 


The  Religions  97 

Buddhism 

Buddhism  took  its  rise  in  India  about  five^  centu-  Gautamj 
ries  before  Christ,  and  in  the  empire  is  now  almost 
wholly  confined  to  Burma.  According  to  all 
accounts  Hinduism  had  reached  a  state  of  degra- 
dation as  well  as  of  tyranny,  when  a  reform  was 
inaugurated  by  the  founder  of  Buddhism,  Gau- 
tama, who  was  a  prince  of  some  note.  He  led  an 
ordinary  life  until  he  suddenly  became  impressed 
with  the  conviction  that  he  had  a  mission  to  per- 
form in  the  world.  He  deserted  his  throne, 
adopted  austere  habits  of  life,  and  became  a  wan- 
dering teacher  among  the  people  of  the  land.  As 
he  denounced  Brahmanism  with  great  freedom 
and  preached  against  the  trammels  of  caste,  he 
quickly  gained  popularity  and  made  rapid  prog- 
ress in  winning  converts. 

Ancient  Buddhism,  however,  was  very  different  Reasons 
from  that  of  later  years,  or  of  the  present  day. 
As  popularly  known,  it  was  simply  a  protest 
against  Brahmanism.  It  did  not  reject  caste,  but 
it  ignored  it  by  appealing  to  all  on  equal  terms. 
It  made  light  of  religious  austerities,  and  rejected 
the  elaborate  ceremonies  of  the  Brahmans.  It 
spoke  in  the  language  of  the  common  people,  and 
in  contrast  with  Brahmanism  it  must  have  seemed 
liberal  indeed.  It  made  much  of  the  ills  of  the 
present  life,  which  all  keenly  feel,  and  held  out 
the  hope  of  final   escape  from  earthly  woes  by 

^Monier  Williams,  Buddhism,  21. 


for  Success  < 


98  The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

entering  the  state  of  Nirvana!'  be3'0nd  which  there 
can  be  no  further  birth,  if  indeed  any  further 
existence. 

Decline  It  is  a  siugular  fact  that    no  historian  has  evei 

been  able  to  tell  the  story  of  the  decline  and  fall 
of  Buddhism  in  India.  It  rose  to  great  power, 
sent  missionaries  to  other  lands,  and  as  a  great 
missionary  religion  proved  notably  successful.  In 
fact  it  won  its  way  into  China,  Tibet,  Burma,  and 
all  the  countries  of  southeastern  Asia,  until  it 
became  numerically  the  leading  religion  of  the 
world.  But  while  holding  its  ground  in  other 
lands,  it  failed  to  maintain  its  position  in  India. 
The  quiet  manner  in  which  Buddhism  was  so  com- 
pletely supplanted  in  India  by  the  competing 
system  of  Hinduism  would  make  a  unique  chap- 
ter in  religious  history,  if  the  facts  could  be 
gathered  from  authentic  records;  but  this  is  now 
impossible,  and  the  slow  process  by  which  the 
change  was  affected  must  probably  remain  a  mat- 
ter of  intelligent  conjecture. 

Divisions  of  Indian  Buddhism  during  the  third  century 
B.  C,  divided  into  two  sections ;  known  as  north- 
ern and  southern  respectively;  the  former  has  its 
headquarters  in  Tibet  and  the  latter  in  Ceylon. 
The  southern  school  prevails  in  Ceylon,  Burma, 
and  Siam. 
Teachings  It  is  difficult  at  this  great  distance  of  time  to 
determine  with  accuracy  what  the  great  leader 
Regarded  as  the  end  of  all  personal  existence. 


Buddhism 


of  Buddha 


o 


The  Religions 


99 


Gautama  actually  taught,  and  it  is  probable  that 
many  teachings  popularly  attributed  to  him  really 
belonged  to  leaders  of  a  more  recent  date.  The 
following  statement  throws  much  light  upon  the 
whole  doctrine  of  Buddha:  "First,  all  existence 
— that  is,  existence  in  any  form,  whether  on  earth 
or  in  heavenly  spheres — necessarily  involves  pain 
and  suffering.  Second,  all  suffering  is  caused  by 
lust,  or  craving,  or  desire,  of  three  kinds :  for  sen- 
sual pleasure,  for  wealth,  for  existence.  Third, 
cessation  of  suffering  is  simultaneous  with  extinc- 
tion of  lust,  craving,  and  desire.  Fourth,  extinc- 
tion of  lust,  craving,  and  desire,  and  cessation  of 
suffering  are  accomplished  by  perseverance  in  the 
noble,  eightfold  path,  namely:  right  beliefs  or 
views,  right  resolve,  right  speech,  right  work, 
right  livelihood,  right  exercise  or  training,  right 
mindfulness,  right  mental  concentration."^ 

Some  of  the  excellent  moral  precepts  of  Buddha 
are:  (1)  Do  not  kill;  (2)  Do  not  steal;  (3)  Do 
not  lie;  (4)  Do  not  commit  adultery;  (5)  Drink 
no  strong  drink;  (6)  Exercise  charity;  (7)  Be 
pure;  (8)  Be  patient;  (9)  Be  courageous; 
(10)  Be  contemplative;  (11)  Seek  after  knowl- 
edge. 

The    Buddhist    believes    that    he    has    passed   Nir%'ana 
through  countless  existences  as  man,  animal,  or 
insect.    This  numberless  series  of  transmigrations 
may  be  ascending  or  descending.     "Karma,  the 

^Monier  Williams,  Buddhism,  43,  44. 


Moral 
Precepts 


100        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

resultant  force  of  all  his  past  actions,  brings  into 
existence  a  new  being  whose  state  is  happy  or 
miserable  according  to  the  desert,  good  or  evil, 
embodied  in  that  resultant  force/^^  This  teaching 
denies  all  previous  identity  and  heredity.  In 
Buddhism  salvation  means  an  escape  from  exist- 
ence, which  is  considered  as  full  of  evil  and  suffer- 
ing, through  the  noble  eightfold  path  mentioned 
above.  In  other  words  salvation  can  be  obtained 
only  by  gaining  merit  through  a  meaningless  wor- 
ship at  the  pagoda,^  obeying  the  commandments  of 
Buddha,  and  through  intellectual  attainment.  The 
highest  attainment  which  Buddhism  holds  out  to 
its  followers  is  Nirvana,  in  Burmese  Neihhan, 
which  means  extinction  of  both  the  spiritual  and 
physical  or  utter  annihilation.  Neikban  expressed 
in  a  milder  form  is  that  state  of  impossible  exist- 
ence in  which  there  is  neither  sensation  nor  con- 
scious life,  or  as  they  fittingly  describe  it,  "a  flame 
which  has  been  blown  out."  According  to  their 
teachings,  Gautama,  having  attained  this  condi- 
tion of  Nirvana  has  wholly  disappeared  from  the 
world. 

Before  the  entrance  of  Buddhism  into  Burma, 
the  Burmans  and  Talaings,  like  the  surrounding 
tribes,  worshiped  nats,  demons,  or  spirits,  with 
supernatural  powers.  The  reigning  king  becoming 
a  convert,  decreed  that  all  his  subjects  must  wor- 

^Cushing,  in  Religions  of  Mission  Fields,  107. 
'Buddhist  temple  of  worship. 


The  Eeliffions  101 


'O 


Moral  Code 


ship  at  the  pagoda  or  be  put  to  death.  But  the  peo- 
ple refused  to  obe}^,  so  the  king  had  a  nat-sin, 
spirit-house,  constructed  near  the  pagoda  and  in 
this  way  induced  the  people  to  transfer  their  wor- 
ship from  the  nat-sin  to  the  substantial  and  visible 
pagoda.  It  must  not  be  understood  that  the  Bur- 
mans  have  completely  forsaken  animism,  because 
there  are  many  evidences  that  they  have  simply 
added  Buddhism  to  their  spirit-worship.  The 
majority  of  the  people  constantly  live  in  awful 
fear  lest  some  evil  spirit  may  bring  disaster,  and 
Nagas,  dragon-like  reptiles,  are  dreaded  by  nearly 
all  of  the  Burmese. 

It  has  sometimes  been  asserted  that  the  moral   High 
code  of  Buddha  rivals  that  of  Christ,  and  that 
Buddhism  expresses  high  moral  ideals  cannot  be  ' 

denied.     However,  to  obtain  a  correct  estimate  of  ; 

any  teaching  it  is  necessary  to  study  the  lives  of  : 

its  exponents.  One  of  the  cardinal  command- 
ments is,  "Thou  shalt  not  take  the  life  of  any  liv- 
ing thing.^' 

This  commandment  forbids  exceptions  even  in   Preservation       | 
self-defense  and  equalizes  in  penalty  the  taking   °^  ^"* 
of  human  life  and  that  of  the  smallest  insect.    But  .' 

the  Burmans  in  destroying  life  in  w^ar  have  always 
found  it  convenient  to  obtain  absolution  by  resort-  j 

ing  to  the  doctrine  of  "merit.^'^    Moreover,  large  | 

numbers  of  them  are  making  their  living  by  fish-  ' 

ing,  which  is  a  life-taking  business.  - 

^The  belief  tliat  o^erings  at  pagodas  will  absolve  sin,  ' 


102        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 


Truthfulness 


Benefits  and 
Evils  of 
Buddhism 


Another  eonimandment  is,  "Thou  shalt  speak  no 
false  word."  As  a  result  of  such  a  commandment 
one  would  naturally  expect  some  truthfulness 
among  Buddhists,  but  thus  far  it  has  not  been  dis- 
covered, and  few  Europeans  place  any  reliance 
upon  the  promise  of  a  heathen  Burman.  To  show 
the  looseness  of  the  interpretation  of  their  com- 
mandments, their  "Sacred  Book"  gives  this  defini- 
tion of  a  falsehood:  "A  statement  constitutes  a  lie, 
when  discovered  by  the  person  to  whom  it  is  told 
to  be  untrue/'^  These  examples  of  the  gulf  be- 
tween teaching  and  practice  are  sufficient  to  show 
the  failure  of  Buddhism  in  the  moral  life  of  the 
people. 

Buddhism  proclaims  equality  and  social  freedom 
to  all.  Caste  does  not  exist,  and  any  man  may  rise 
to  the  highest  position.  Women  are  accorded  full 
rights  in  business  and  society.  But  Buddhism 
knows  no  God  in  any  real  sense,  and  is  practically 
atheistic.  It  believes  personal  existence  in  itself 
to  be  a  source  of  evil,  and  hence  can  have  no  real 
hope  of  conscious  immortality.  It  takes  a  wholly 
pessimistic  view  of  life.  It  teaches  men  to  trust 
in  their  own  efforts  wholly,  and  to  look  for  no  help 
from  without.  It  exacts  works  of  merit  and  bur- 
dens its  votaries  with  useless  duties.  It  ignores 
praj^er  and  knows  nothing  of  faith,  hope,  or  love. 
It  is  merely  a  religion  of  the  intellect  and  has 
failed  to  elevate  the  moral  life  of  its  followers. 


'Cochrane,  Among  the  Burmans,  124. 


The  Eeliffions  103 


Christianity  advocates  all  of  the  moral  virtues   contrasted        \ 
of  Buddhism  and  fills  up  the  awful  desolation  of   ^'^'^  .    .^        i 

^  Christianity         i 

Buddhism  with  a  living  personal  God.  Christian- 
ity has  a  Saviour,  Buddhism  casts  each  individual  J 
upon  his  own  helplessness.  Christianity  is  a  \ 
revelation  of  hope,  Buddhism  a  religion  of  despair.  j 
Gautama  offers  only  death,  Christ  offers  life  and  j 
immortality.  1 

Mohammedanism  ' 

The  former  faiths  are  insignificant  in  a  general  vigor  of  mo- 
statement  of  the  religious  situation  in  India  ^"^^ 
to-day.  To  the  popular  mind  there  are  two  reli- 
gions— the  Hindu  and  the  Mohammedan.  One 
fifth  of  the  people  of  the  empire,  a  number  greater 
than  the  population  of  Germany,  are  followers  of 
the  False  Prophet.  India  has  more  Mohamme- 
dans within  its  borders  than  any  other  country, 
and  to-day  more  than  one  half  of  the  Mohamme- 
dan world  is  under  Christian  rule  or  protection. 
Mohammedanism  is  the  most  modern  of  all  reli- 
gions, and  does  not  confine  itself  to  any  one  race. 
Its  adherents  in  India  are  physically  more  sturdy 
and  vigorous  than  their  neighbors  and  display 
unusual  qualities  of  leadership.  They  are  proud 
of  their  race  and  religion,  and  are  more  independ- 
ent and  influential  than  the  Hindus. 

^Mohammedanism   was   brought   into   India   in   invasion 
714  A.  D.,  by  the  invading  armies  from  the  north-   medanism' 
west,  and  neither  made  an  impression  on  the  pub- 


104        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 


Four  Sects 


Is  Moham< 
medanism 

(Showing 
Rapidly? 


lie  mind  nor  gained  a  foothold  until  the  invading 
hosts  began  to  form  permanent  settlements  in  the 
land.  No  missionaries  accompanied  or  followed 
the  invaders,  and  the  work  of  conversion  was  as 
unlike  that  of  the  Buddhists  as  it  possibly  could 
have  been.  In  many  cases  the  naked  sword  served 
as  an  argument,  while  in  a  different  manner 
rewards  became  a  force  among  people  who  have 
always  appreciated  positions  of  respectability  and 
honor.  The  invaders  were  ignorant  of  the  Indian 
languages,  and  it  was  absolutely  necessary  for  them 
to  secure  a  large  staff  of  assistants  who  belonged 
to  the  soil,  and  who  were  thoroughly  conversant 
with  the  languages,  ideas,  usages,  and  modes  of 
thought  of  the  people.  Then,  as  now,  the  mass  of 
the  people  were  extremely  poor,  and  it  is  easy  to 
imagine  what  the  effect  must  have  been  when  it 
was  announced  that  none  but  converts  would  be 
admitted  into  public  office. 

It  is  commonly  supposed  that  Islam  is  a  homo- 
geneous religion,  and  not  rent  by  factions.  Among 
the  man}^  divisions  the  four  principal  schools  of 
thought  in  India  are  the  Sunnites,  Shiahs,  Waha- 
his,  and  the  modern  school  of  freethinkers,  among 
whom  Sir  Saiyid  Ahmad  was  the  most  influential 
advocate  of  all  teachings  that  promote  progress 
and  enlightenment. 

A  comparative  statistical  study  of  Mohamme- 
danism during  the  last  two  decades  will  allay  the 
fears  of  many  in  regard  to  its  rapid  extension 


The  Eeligions 


105 


through  the  empire.  Between  the  years  1881  and 
1891  Mohammedanism  increased  14.3  per  cent., 
and  during  the  decade  preceding  1901,  8.9  per 
cent.  At  the  same  time  the  population  of  the 
country  increased  from  1881  to  1891,  13.1  per 
cent.,  and  from  1891  to  1901,  2.5  per  cent. 
Mohammedanism  is  not  keeping  pace  with  Chris- 
tianity, which  increased  during  the  decade  pre- 
vious to  1901,  27.9  per  cent. 

Mohammedan  doctors  divide  religion  into  two   ReHgioa 
parts — the  dogmatic  and  the  practical.  Two  Parts 

Under  the  former  comes  what  must  be  believed 
concerning  God,  angels,  the  sacred  oracles,  the 
prophets,  the  resurrection,  the  judgment,  and 
predestination. 

The  practical  part  consists  of  five  pillars  or  foun- 
dations, namely :  ( 1 )  The  recital  of  the  Kalima  or 
creed;  (2)  Five  times  of  daily  prayer;  before  sun- 
rise, at  noon,  before  sunset,  after  sunset,  and  when 
night  sets  in.  All  prayers  are  recited  in  fixed  forms 
of  Arabic  words ;  (3)  The  thirty  days'  fast,  that  is, 
during  the  month  of  Ramazan;  (4)  Almsgiving; 
(5)  Pilgrimage  to  Mecca." ^ 

The   Mohammedan   creed   is    brief   and   bald.   Creed 
"There  is  no  God  but  Allah,  and  Mohammed  is 
his  prophet."    "The  divine  unity  making,  uphold- 
ing, governing,  perfecting  all  things,  is  the  rock 
on  which  Mohammed  builds.     The  consciousness 

^Mitchell,  The  Great  Religions  of  India,  223. 


106        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 


Benefits 
cf  Moham. 
medanism 


Evils  of  Mo- 
hammedanisni 


of  dependence  upon  the  Absolute  and  Eternal  is 
the  keynote  of  Islam/' ^ 

It  must  be  admitted  that  Mohammedanism  has 
some  truth  and  has  been  a  successful  missionary 
religion  among  several  races.  It  has  raised  some 
of  the  wild  tribes  above  their  barbarous  customs 
of  devil  worship,  human  sacrifice,  infanticide,  and 
witchcraft,  and  has  inculcated  the  idea  of  mono- 
theism. During  the  period  of  the  Mogul  emperors 
its  leaders  contributed  some  of  the  finest  architec- 
ture in  the  world.  It  infused  a  more  vigorous 
element  into  the  national  character,  gave  the  peo- 
ple the  broadening  conception  of  a  great  Indian 
empire,  and  relieved  its  followers  of  the  fetters  of 
the  caste  system.  It  is  a  distinct  advance  beyond 
Buddhism  and  Hinduism  in  that  it  opposes  pan- 
theism, polytheism,  atheism,  idolatry,  and  trans- 
migration of  souls. 

The  Moslem  conception  of  God  is  "the  worst 
form  of  monotheism  which  has  ever  existed.''^ 
God  is  an  absolute  sovereign  who  knows  no  love  or 
mercy.  There  is  no  escaping  from  the  will  of  God 
and  every  Moslem  must  be  resigned  and  obedient. 
In  short,  it  is  fatalism  of  the  most  heinous  type. 
To  the  drowning  man  Mohammed  says,  "It  is  the 
will  of  God.''  The  Mohammedan  idea  of  imm.or- 
tality  is  a  blurred  vision  of  sensual  delights,  and 


*Lilly,  India  and  Its  Problems,  145. 
'Quoted  by  Mason,  Lux  Christi,  52. 


The  Religions                         107  ] 

its  code  of  morals  is  a  mixture  of  ancient  Judaism 

and  Arabian  heathenism  tainted  by  Hinduism.  Its  | 
spirit  is  hostile  to  progress,  and  intolerant  in  the 

extreme.    As  a  rule  it  is  opposed  to  modern  educa-  < 

tion,  and  in  literacy  its  people  are  below  all  of  the  i 

faiths  except  the  animistic.    The  Koran^  is  full  of  ! 

errors  and  superstitions,  permits  falsehood,  and  .| 

perpetuates   slavery,  polygamy,  divorce,  and  the  j 

degradation  of  womanhood.    While  it  may  elevate  j 

races  to  a  certain  point,  it  petrifies  them  there  and  J 

almost  hopelessly  impedes  any  further  advance.  j 

The  Moslems  divorce  morals  from  religion.     In  ' 

writing  of  the  sensuality  of  Mohammedanism,  Dr.  '; 

Zwemer,  who  is  one  of  the  foremost  authorities,  j 

says:  "On  this  topic  it  is  not  possible  to  speak  : 
plainly  nor  to  be  wholly  silent.     One  must  live 
among  Moslems  to  feel  the  blasting  influence  of 
this  side  of  Islam  on  its  followers.^''' 

Mohammedanism    believes    in    a    God    who    is       contrasted       j 
above,  relentless  and  immovable;  Christianity  be-       chdstianity      ! 

lieves  in  a  God  who  is  within,  full  of  mercy  and  ■ 

tenderness.      To    the    Mohammedan    prayer    is  ' 

stereotyped  praise ;  to  the  Christian  it  is  commun-  ■ 

ion  with  a  Father  of  love.     As  a  remedy  for  sin  j 

Mohammedanism    offers    fatalism;    Christianity,  | 

redemption.    The  hope  of  the  Mohammedan  is  in  i 
a   prophet;   the  hope   of  the   Christian   is   in   a 

Saviour.  j 

^The  Scriptures  of  the  Moslems,  I 
^Zwemer,  in  Religions  of  Mission  Fields,  258. 


108        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 


Hinduism 


A  Mighty 
Problem 


Kistorical 
Development 


Sacred 
Literature 


Among  the  religions  systems  of  India,  Hindu- 
ism bulks  the  largest.  Its  adherents  include  more 
than  two  thirds  of  the  people  of  the  empire,  and 
it  is  safe  to  state  that  it  has  more  or  less  colored 
every  faith  in  the  country  except  Christianity. 
The  bond  which  unites  the  Hindu  is  caste.  It  is 
both  a  social  and  a  religious  bond,  and,  strangely 
enough,  though  it  unites  them  it  also  keeps  them 
apart. 

The  early  Aryans,  who  crossed  the  Indus  and 
established  themselves  in  what  is  now  called  the 
Punjab,  were  not  worshipers  of  idols,  and  so  far  as 
can  be  known  from  their  writings  which  have  come 
down  to  us,  were  men  of  a  much  higher  plane  of 
thought  than  was  common  in  that  far-off  age  of 
the  world.  By  slow  degrees  as  they  penetrated 
south  and  east,  the  more  intelligent  invaders 
became  gradually  involved  in  the  degrading  prac- 
tices which  they  found  among  the  peoples  of  the 
land  which  they  had  conquered.  Changes  of  this 
kind  move  slowly  and  cannot  be  effected  even  in 
the  course  of  a  century.  Very  many  long  years 
must  have  elapsed  while  the  system  now  known  as 
Hinduism  was  taking  shape,  and  in  what  way  the 
changes  were  effected  can  now  be  only  a  matter  of 
conjecture. 

As  early  as  200  B.  C,  two  alphabets,  or  written 
characters,  were  used  in  India.     The  Brahmans, 


PRINCIPAL  RACES  AND   RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 


The  Religions  109 

however,  preferred  to  hand  down  their  holy  learn- 
ing rather  than  write  it,  so  it  remained  unwritten 
until  the  fifteenth  century  after  Christ.  Although 
the  sacred  writings  are  now  in  print,  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  ninety  per  cent,  of  the  people 
have  no  knowledge  of  them  whatever.  The  Eig- 
Veda  is  the  oldest  and  most  important  book  and  is 
considered  the  transcendent  authority  of  the  Hindu 
religion.  It  is  a  collection  of  ten  hundred  and 
seventeen  hymns  chiefly  addressed  to  the  gods.  It 
is  a  memorial,  accounting  the  victorious  march 
of  the  Aryan  race  through  Kabul  to  the  Punjab. 
The  Yajur  Veda^  is  a  later  production  and 
mainly  liturgical.  The  Sama  Veda  is  ceremonial 
in  character.  The  Atharva  Veda  is  the  most 
recent  in  origin  of  the  four  and  contains  a 
multitude  of  incantations.  The  Code  of  Manu  is 
the  chief  authority  in  Hindu  jurisprudence  and 
contains  the  laws  of  caste.  In  addition  to  the  above 
there  are  the  TJpanisliads  and  Sutras,  the  philo- 
sophical productions  of  the  Brahmans,  and  the 
great  epic  poems  Ramayana  and  Mahahharata. 
The  Puranas  were  probably  composed  during  the 
seventh  and  eighth  centuries  A.  D.,  and  exhibit 
the  degeneration  of  the  religion  into  the  grossest 
polytheism.  The  Tantras — probably  the  latest 
productions — are  similar  to  the  Puranas  and  ^'set 

^A  few  years  ago  portions  of  the  Yajur  Veda  were 
published,  but  the  government  was  obliged  to  punish 
the  producers  on  the  ground  of  having  violated  the 
law   against   obscene  literature. 


110        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 


Variety 

of  Worship 


Animistic 
Survivals 


forth  the  principles  of  the  obscene  and  horrible 
SaMi  worship/^ ^ 

Hinduism  does  not  represent  any  distinct  sys- 
tem or  doctrine,  settled  form  of  worship,  or  code 
of  morals.  The  average  middle-class  Hindu  in  his 
every-day  life  may  worship  any  one  or  many  of  the 
following:  (1)  Mere  stocks  and  stones  and  unus- 
ual local  configurations;  (2)  Things  inanimate, 
which  are  gifted  with  mysterious  motion ;  ( 3 )  Ani- 
mals which  are  feared;  (4)  Tools  and  visible 
things,  animate  or  inanimate,  which  are  directly 
or  indirectly  useful  and  profitable;  (5)  Deo^  or 
spirit,  the  vague  impersonation  of  an  uncanny  sen- 
sation  that   comes    over   one   at   certain   places; 

(6)  Dead  relatives  and  other  deceased  persons, 
who  had  a  great  reputation  during  life,  or  who 
died  in  some  strange  or  notorious  way  at  shrines; 

(7)  Manifold   demigods  or  subordinate  deities; 

(8)  The  supreme  gods  of  Hinduism,  and  of  their 
ancient  incarnations  and  personifications,  handed 
down  by  the  Brahmanic  scriptures/  The  above 
category  includes  theism,  pantheism,  polytheism, 
fetichism,  nature  worship,  animal  worship,  demon 
worship,  hero  worship,  and  ancestor  worship. 

Although  Hinduism  has  a  multitude  of  beliefs, 
and  is  rent  by  many  sects,  there  are  seven^  articles 
of  faith  on  which  there  is  a  degree  of  unity. 

"Janvier,  in  Religions  of  Mission  Fields,  56. 
'Lyall,  Asiatic  Studies,  7. 

'For  the  classification  of  common  beliefs,  the 
author  is  indebted  to  Wilkin's  Modern  Hinduism. 


The  Religions  111 

"God  is  one  and  without  a  second*^  is  a  common  Divine  unity 
expression  among  the  people.  He  created  the 
heavens,  and  earth,  and  all  men  regardless  of  race 
or  color.  God  is  so  great  that  he  cannot  be  ex- 
pressed by  any  one  being,  so  he  is  manifested  in 
numberless  incarnations. 

To  the  attributes  usually  ascribed  to  the  Deity  Belief 
by  Christians  the  Hindus  make  no  objection.  *"  ""^^ 
They  believe  that  it  is  only  when  God  is  incarnated 
in  some  being  that  he  becomes  degraded,  and 
because  of  his  superior  wisdom  and  power,  his 
capacity  for  doing  evil  is  increased  beyond  that  of 
any  ordinary  individual.  j 

Believing  in  millions  of  incarnations,  they  have   innumerable 
no  difficulty  in  adding  any  number  of  gods.  When-  "*        i 

ever  a  teacher  displays  unusual  power,  they  imme-  j 

liately  consider  him  an  incarnation.   Thus  they  j 

admitted  Buddha  into  their  pantheon,  and  would  j 

readily  accept  Christ  as  another  incarnation,  if  the  i 

Christians  did  not  claim  that  he  is  supreme. 

Maya  means  illusion  and  is  one  of  their  f  unda-   Belief  in  Maya     ; 

mental    doctrines   of   philosophy.      The   common 

belief  is  that  everything  in  the  world  emanated  : 

from  God,  and  that  he  can  withdraw  all  into  him-  i 

self  at  any  time.     Men  may  think  that  they  are  i! 

different  from  God,  but  that  is  all  Maya  or  illu-  j 

sion.    The  his^hest  wisdom  is  to  realize  one's  one-  ^ 

...  1 

ness  with  God,  and  when  this  is  attained  there  is  ; 

union  with  the  divine  spirit.     The  devotees  are  i 

examples  of  men  trying  to  overcome  this  illusion.  .  j 


112        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 


Pantheism 


Trans- 
migration 


Fate 


Philosophical 
Systems 


God  is  everywhere  and  everything.  God  is  in 
everyone.  Man^s  acts  are  not  his  own,  but  are 
compelled  by  God.  Sin  therefore  is  not  sin,  be- 
cause God  induces  men  to  do  right  and  wrong. 
Because  God  is  everywhere  and  is  so  much  stronger, 
man  must  do  as  God  desires.  This  is  one  of  the 
most  pernicious  beliefs,  because  it  destroys  all  free- 
dom and  moral  responsibility. 

The  human  soul  is  reborn  into  the  world  for 
further  trial  either  in  a  better  or  a  worse  condi- 
tion. A  soul  may  reappear  in  a  plant,  a  mineral, 
an  animal,  or  in  an  exalted  or  degraded  human 
form. 

A  few  days  after  an  infant  is  born  it  is  believed 
that  the  Deity  sketches  the  career  on  the  forehead 
of  the  child ;  hence  everything  that  comes  to  pass 
during  the  lifetime  of  a  person  is  inevitable,  and 
the  pious  Hindu  satisfies  himself  by  meekly  saying 
"It  is  written.^'  During  illness  physicians  are  not 
employed  nor  medicines  used  because  they  would 
be  of  no  avail  if  it  is  decreed  that  the  patient  is  to 
die. 

Some  reference  to  the  six  philosophical  systems 
of  Hinduism  may  be  expected  by  readers  of  this 
brief  sketch,  but  any  explanation  of  these  would 
be  impossible  in  this  short  chapter.  Such  a 
description  would  have  to  deal  with  questions  of 
philosophy  rather  than  religion.  In  fact  these  sys- 
tems hardly  affect  the  modern  religious  situation 
at   all,    although   appeals   to   some   philosophical 


The  Eeligions  113 

tenet  are  sometimes  made  in  the  course  of  a  reli- 
gious discussion;  but  to  the  ordinary  Hindu  they 
have  little  meaning. 

The  well-known  belief  of  the  Hindus  in  a  sacred  Hindu  Triad 
triad,  known  as  Brahma  the  Creator,  Vishnu  the 
Preserver,  and  Shiva  the  Destroyer,  has  led  many 
to  suppose  that  the  Christian  doctrine  of  a  trinity 
is  faintly  reflected  in  this  feature  of  Hinduism; 
but  a  close  examination  of  the  Hindu  system 
quickly  dispels  this  idea.  There  is  no  real  unity 
in  the  Hindu  trinity.  It  is  a  triad,  but  not  a  trin- 
ity. Vishnu  and  Shiva  are  often  represented  as 
antagonistic ;  and  bitter,  long-standing  feuds  have 
often  occurred  between  the  votaries  of  the  two 
deities.  Because  of  the  multitude  of  gods,  the 
people  have  an  opportunity  to  select,  hence  nearly 
every  section  of  India  has  its  favorite  ones.  As  a 
rule  Vishnu  is  the  most  popular  god  in  the  north, 
and  Shiva  has  most  of  his  devotees  in  the  south. 

Brahma,  the  so-called  Creator,  stands  wholly  in  comparativa 
the  background  in  the  popular  mind.  He  is  sel-  of^Go^d^*^ 
dom  worshiped  and  has  but  few  avowed  followers. 
Vishnu,  the  Preserver,  is  brought  into  great  prom- 
inence by  his  numerous  incarnations,  and  is  prob- 
ably the  most  popular  of  the  triad.  Shiva, 
however,  is  the  most  universally  revered,  probably 
owing  to  the  fact  that  in  some  of  his  forms  he 
becomes  an  object  of  terror  to  his  votaries,  and 
fear  added  to  superstition  is  a  great  motive  power 
in  the  Hindu  mind. 


114        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

Vishnu  Of  the  ten  principal  incarnations  of  Vishnu,  the 

as  Krishna  ^^^^  ^^  ^^^^  ^^  comc.  The  most  popular  incarnation 
is  the  eighth  Krishna.  He  is  a  mixed  character, 
conceived  of  the  people  as  a  warlike  prince,  a 
licentious  cowherd,  and  a  supreme  deity.  The  story 
of  Krishna^s  life  is  one  of  the  most  debasing,  and 
the  people  admit  that  the  incidents  are  abomina- 
ble, but  as  a  god  he  could  do  no  wrong.  "He  has 
been  characterized  as  the  incarnation  of  lust,  and 
is  said  to  have  had  16,100  wives  and  180,000 
sons.'^ 
Shiva  Shiva,  first  known  as  destroyer,  then  as  repro- 
ducer, is  in  his  fourth  form  a  demon  rather 
than  a  god,  bears  the  name  of  Bhairava,  wears 
garlands  of  serpents,  and  a  string  of  skulls  for  a 
necklace,  and  in  every  respect  forms  as  repul- 
sive and  malignant  a  character  as  the  Oriental 
mind  can  depict.  He  appears  in  still  another  form 
as  a  mountain  god,  fond  of  pleasure,  devoted 
to  dancing  and  drinking,  and  surrounded  by  a 
troup  of  dwarfs.  In  this  last  character  his  wor- 
ship is  the  most  degrading  and  immoral  known  in 
India. 
^^^  Each  god  has  one  or  more  wives  who  are  wor- 
shiped. The  wife  of  Shiva  is  known  by  different 
names,  the  most  popular  of  which  is  Kali.  In 
this  character  she  excels  her  husband  in  her  love 
of  wanton  destruction,  and  her  image  is  perhaps 
as  revolting  an  object  as  can  be  found  anywhere 
in   the  world.     "She   is  represented  as   a  black 


Brahi 


Kali 


Hanuman  Ganesha 

Four  Indian  Deities 


The  Religions  115 


"& 


woman  with  four  arms.  In  one  hand  she  has  a 
weapon,  in  another  the  giant  she  has  slain;  with 
the  two  others  she  is  encouraging  her  worshipers. 
For  earrings  she  has  two  dead  bodies ;  she  wears  a 
necklace  of  skulls.  Her  only  clothing  is  a  girdle 
made  of  dead  men's  hands,  and  her  tongue  pro- 
trudes from  her  mouth.  Her  eyes  are  red  as 
those  of  a  drunkard,  and  her  breasts  are  smeared 
with  blood.  She  stands  with  one  foot  on  the  thigh 
and  the  other  on  the  breast  of  her  husband.''^ 

India  has  a  multitude  of  minor  deities,  the  most  Minor  Deities 
popular  of  whom  is  Ganesha,  the  god  of  wisdom, 
invoked  by  persons  beginning  anything  new  and 
by  students  before  their  examinations.  The 
monkey-god  Hanumari  is  also  a  great  favorite. 
Not  satisfied  with  gods  and  goddesses,  there  are 
temples,  shrines,  idols,  and  other  objects  of  wor- 
ship, until  it  is  stated  by  some  that  they  number 
330,000,000. 

It  is  not  a  pleasing  task  to  give  an  account  of  cruei 
practices  which  belong  to  the  Hinduism  of  the 
present  day,  which  are  sometimes  revolting  in  cru- 
elty, or  ridiculous  in  absurdity,  or  painful  in  suf- 
fering imposed  for  imaginary  purposes.  Mention 
was  made  in  the  last  chapter  of  the  abominable 
custom  of  burning  widows  with  the  dead  bodies  of 
their  husbands,  but  to  this  may  be  added  many 
other   practices,   some   of   which   are    shockingly 


Practices 


^Quoted  by  Beach,  India  and  Christian  Opvortunity, 
130. 


116        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

repulsive.  Only  a  few  years  ago  the  writer  wit- 
nessed a  spectacle  of  incredible  voluntary  torture 
which  he  has  often  wished  could  be  banished  from 
his  memory.  A  number  of  men  were  being 
escorted  by  friends  to  a  shrine  some  miles  distant, 
where  they  were  to  exhibit  themselves  as  living 
evidences  of  the  fact  that  they  had  fulfilled  certain 
vows  made  during  the  previous  year.  The  friends 
who  accompanied  them  sometimes  assisted  them 
by  sprinkling  water  on  them,  or  fanning  them 
while  they  walked  in  the  burning  sun.  Each  of 
these  wretched  creatures  had  his  tongue  drawn 
out  as  far  as  possible,  and  kept  in  that  position  by 
an  iron  spike  several  inches  long  which  passed 
directly  through  it.  Their  naked  breasts  and 
backs  had  a  number  of  broad  steel  hooks  passing 
through  the  skin  and  muscles.  There  were  prob- 
ably a  dozen  of  these  in  each  breast,  and  the  same 
number  on  each  back.  On  their  feet  they  were 
wearing  shoes  with  sharp  nails  driven  through  the 
soles  in  such  a  way  as  to  inflict  frightful  torture 
at  every  step.  They  seemed  to  be  almost  exhausted 
and  yet  had  several  miles  farther  to  walk  before 
they  could  reach  the  temple.  The  whole  exhibi- 
tion was  simply  horrible,  and  it  required  a  very 
great  effort  to  look  at  them  at  all.  Of  course  it 
will  be  said  that  this  was  exceptional,  but  never- 
theless it  was  a  part  of  Hinduism,  or  at  least  of 
present-day  Hinduism.  If  the  authorities  had 
known  of  it,  no  doubt  the  spectacle  would  have 


Manager  and  Priests  of  Hindu  Temple,  Rameswaram,  India 


Buddhist  Priest  Instructing  a  Class  of  Boys,  Burma 


The  Keligions 


117 


been  prohibited,  but  in  the  eyes  of  many  of  the 
Hindus  this  would  have  amounted  to  an  unwar- 
rantable interference  with  religious  liberty.  The 
devotees  with  arms  held  aloft  till  they  become 
shrunken,  and  no  longer  obey  the  will  of  the  suf- 
ferer, can  still  be  seen  at  many  of  the  great  fairs 
in  different  parts  of  the  country. 

It  would  be  doing  a  great  injustice  to  the  intelli- 
gent classes  of  the  Hindu  people  to  hold  them 
responsible  for  all  the  degrading  elements  which 
are  found  in  the  popular  Hinduism  of  to-day. 
Literally  millions  of  Hindus,  and  especially  young 
men  who  have  received  a  modern  education,  are 
ready  to  repudiate  all  the  more  degrading  ele- 
ments of  their  religion,  and  yet  they  cling  to  their 
system  as  a  whole  with  extraordinary  tenacity. 
The  pressure  of  the  caste  system  is  chiefly  respon- 
sible for  their  persistence  in  adhering  to  it.  They 
are  men  not  often  noted  for  their  personal  courage, 
either  physical  or  moral,  and  are  not  strong 
enough  for  the  trial  which  a  vigorous  repudiation 
of  the  system  would  cost  them. 

It  would  be  a  very  great  mistake  to  state  that 
Hinduism  as  a  religion  is  in  a  dying  condition. 
That  it  is  losing  ground  no  careful  observer  can 
doubt,  but  it  still  retains  a  large  measure  of  vigor- 
ous life,  and  many  long  years  will  probably  elapse 
before  it  ceases  to  be  one  of  the  great  religions  of 
the  earth.  None  the  less,  as  a  system  it  has  the 
sentence   of   death   pronounced   upon   it,   and  it 


Attitude  of 
Intelligent 
Hindus 


Hinduism 
Not  a  Dying 
Religion 


118        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

cannot  permanently  hold  the  position  which  it 
has  long  maintained  in  the  face  of  advancing 
intelligence  and  the  modern  era.  The  people  of 
India  are  rapidly  emerging  out  of  the  darkness  of 
ages  into  the  light  of  present-day  civilization,  and 
the  missionaries  of  India  ask  for  nothing  more 
than  simply  to  let  the  Light  of  the  World  break 
through  all  obscuring  hindrances  and  shine  freely 
upon  the  people  of  the  empire. 
Benefits  and  jf  would  be  wroug  to  concludc  that  Hinduism 
Hinduism  IS  wholly  of  the  dcvil,  and  that  a  loving  Father  has 
left  these  myriads  without  a  witness.  To  acknowl- 
edge this  would  admit  the  supremacy  of  the  evil 
one.  It  is  not  generous  but  just  to  believe  that  the 
Hindus  are  seeking  God,  but  to  them  he  is  afar 
off  and  unapproachable.  At  some  points  in  their 
faith  the  light  of  heaven  almost  breaks  through. 
Nevertheless,  the  fair-minded  reader  who  seeks 
for  virtues  and  elements  of  strength  in  Hinduism 
has  a  most  difficult  task.  Theoretically,  Hinduism 
suggests  the  unity  of  God  and  the  solidity  of  man, 
but  practically  it  destroys  these  ideals  by  its  gross 
idolatry  and  its  benumbing  caste  system.  How- 
ever, it  may  be  said,  with  some  degree  of  safety, 
that  it  emphasizes  the  sanctity  of  life,  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  passive  virtues  of  patience,  gentleness, 
and  submission,  and  introduces  religion  into  every- 
day life.  But  Hinduism  has  robbed  man  of  a  per- 
sonal God,  and  defaced  the  distinction  between 
right  and  wrong.     It  has  obliterated  freedom  of 


The  Relisrions  119 


^t) 


with 
Christianity 


will  through  the  fatalism  that  results  from  trans- 
migration. The  blighting  effects  of  the  caste  sys- 
tem, the  degradation  and  religious  prostitution  of 
womanhood,  the  corruption  of  the  priesthood,  the 
lust  and  immorality  of  the  gods  and  goddesses, 
and  its  other  vices,  stamp  Hinduism  as  one  of  the 
foulest,  if  not  the  foulest  religion  that  the  world 
has  seen. 

To  the  Christian  the  universe  and  man  are  Contrasted 
real;  to  the  Hindu,  illusion.  Christianity  repre- 
sents God  as  seeking  man;  Hinduism  represents 
man  as  seeking  God.  Christianity  offers  salvation 
from  sin  and  the  elevation  of  character ;  Hinduism 
offers  only  the  annihilation  of  personality.  Hin- 
duism, in  striking  contrast  to  Christianity,  per- 
petuates pessimism,  bondage,  intolerance,  retro- 
gression, and  the  demoralization  of  womanhood. 
Judged  by  its  moral  results,  Hinduism  is  over- 
whelmingly bad. 

Before  closing  this  chapter  some  mention  must  Religious 
be  made  of  the  devotees  of  India,  a  class  of  the 
community  for  which  India  has  become  famous. 
They  are  found  in  great  numbers  and  represent 
various  castes  of  Hindus  as  well  as  of  Mohamme- 
dans. Some  of  them  are  professedly  saints,  some 
are  sages,  and  many  of  them  are  scoundrels, 
although  the  last-named  do  not  make  a  profession 
of  their  calling.  All  classes  either  reverence  or 
fear  these  men,  and  their  influence  is  very  great. 
Most  or  them  are  ascetics  and  live  by  accepting 


120        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

alms.  Their  blessing  is  highly  prized,  and  their 
curse  greatly  feared.  Many  of  them  either  prac- 
tice self-torture,  or  submit  to  severe  hardships,  or 
adopt  repulsive  habits,  or  contrive  in  some  way 
to  make  life  itself  a  burden  and  an  affliction. 
They  discard  most  of  their  clothing  and  smear 
their  bodies  with  ashes;  they  forsake  home  and 
friends  and  wander  among  strangers.  They 
fast  to  the  limit  of  endurance,  or  perhaps  eat 
repulsive  food.  Many  are  their  devices  for 
afflicting  the  body,  without  however  having 
any  clear  idea  of  benefiting  the  soul.  The 
predominant  ideal  in  their  minds  is  that  of 
abstract  merit,  and  this  is  the  peculiar  notion  of 
Hindus  generally.  The  methods  adopted  for  self- 
inflicted  penance  are  almost  endless.  Everyone 
has  read  of  those  who  have  held  a  hand  aloft  until 
it  had  become  fixed  in  its  position.  At  nearly 
every  great  fair  a  number  of  men  will  be  seen 
going  through  the  self-inflicted  torture  of  what  is 
called  the  "five  fires."  Four  fires  are  kept  burning 
constantly  around  the  devotee,  while  the  sun, 
which  makes  the  fifth,  pours  down  its  burning  rays 
on  the  head  of  the  sufferer.  Others  for  months  at 
a  time  never  allow  themselves  to  lie  down  to  rest, 
but  permit  themselves  to  be  supported  in  a  half- 
reclining  position,  or  suspended  upon  a  cushion 
with  their  feet  dangling  down  some  distance  from 
the  ground.  Some  sleep  on  beds  made  of  broken 
stones,  others  on  spikes:  while  others  again  seek 


Fakirs 

Pierced  Cheeks  Vow  of  Silence 

On  a  bed  of  Spikes 

An  Example  of  the  Good  Type 


The  Eeligion 


121 


Periods  of 
Progression 


torture  for  the  body  by  abstaining  from  sleep  alto- 
gether, or  at  least  reduce  their  sleeping  hours  to 
the  narrowest  possible  limits. 

A  very  common  mode  of  practicing  asceticism  various 
is  that  of  eating  revolting  food.  The  complete 
course  of  training  adopted  by  a  Hindu  devotee,  if 
carried  to  the  full  extent,  involves  one  period  of 
discipleship  during  which  he  is  obliged  to  eat 
everything  which  is  offered  to  him.  1  might  say 
here  that,  according  to  a  strict  rule,  an  ordinary 
Hindu  who  wishes  to  take  a  full  course  is  obliged 
to  pursue  six  different  kinds  of  asceticism,  for  a 
term  of  twelve  years  each,  making  seventy-two 
years  in  all.  The  poor  creatures  can  object  to 
nothing;  and  when  a  devout  Hindu — perhaps  a 
wealthy  princess  who  has  sent  a  thousand  miles 
for  the  famous  devotee — wishes  to  obtain  a  special 
favor  through  his  works  of  merit,  she  will  almost 
certainly  assure  herself  of  his  sanctity  by  requir- 
ing a  horrible  test  of  some  kind  from  which  he 
dare  not  shrink. 

The  moral  tone  of  the  Indian  devotees,  taking 
them  as  a  whole,  is  very  low.  It  could  not  be  other- 
wise when  so  many  who  adopt  this  kind  of  a  life 
as  a  profession  are  insincere  in  their  lives  and 
given  to  various  modes  of  deception.  Many  of 
them,  under  the  impression  that  they  must  sepa- 
rate their  minds  and  hearts  as  far  as  possible  from 
all  worldly  things,  adopt  a  listless  manner,  which 
makes  them  seem  simple  almost  to  the  point  of 


Mora}  Tone 
of  Devotees 


122        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

idiocy.  In  conversation  they  try  to  appear  as  art- 
less as  little  children  and  carefully  avoid  showing 
any  of  the  wisdom  of  the  world,  even  with  regard 
to  the  most  ordinary  affairs.  Some  men  of  this 
class  are  very  harmless,  while  others  are  much  less 
artless  than  they  seem  to  be.  Many  again  are 
given  to  the  use  of  opium  or  other  drugs  peculiar 
to  India.  It  is  probable  that  most  of  them  are 
driven  to  the  use  of  intoxicating  or  stupefying 
drugs  for  the  sake  of  lessening  physical  pain  or 
weariness.  And  yet,  while  the  general  character 
of  the  devotees  as  a  class  is  by  no  means  high,  I 
have  long  since  become  convinced  that  many  of 
them  are  not  only  sincere,  but  according  to  their 
light  are  blameless  and  harmless  in  ordinary  life. 
From  among  these  the  missionaries  occasionally 
succeed  in  winning  Christian  converts,  some  of 
whom  have  become  valuable  preachers  of  the 
Word. 
Devil  Among  the  Mohammedan  devotees  are  found 

Worshippers  occasioual  dcvil  worshipers,  and  here  and  there 
fortune  tellers  who  are  capable  of  making  lasting 
impressions  for  evil  on  the  minds  of  young  chil- 
dren when  allowed  to  amuse  them  by  telling  their 
fortunes.  On  the  whole,  India  could  well  spare 
her  great  army  of  devotees  estimated  at  more  than 
four  millions.  They  do  very  little  good,  and  in 
the  aggregate  compose  a  vast  army  of  idlers.  They 
are  in  the  main  the  product  of  the  mistaken  notion 
that  evil  is  inherent  in  matter. 


The  Eeligions  123 

It  is  not  possible,  within  the  space  allotted,  to  An  Appeal 
review  the  fallacies  and  horrible  practices  of  the 
religions  of  India.  Many  additional  appalling 
and  revolting  spectacles  could  be  rehearsed,  but 
have  been  purposely  omitted  lest  the  writer  should 
be  charged  with  immodesty  or  accused  of  being 
hopelessly  biased  in  his  judgments.  Immorality, 
dishonesty,  superstition,  idolatry,  inhuman  prac- 
tices, and  other  evils  exist  because  of  their  reli- 
gious beliefs,  and  summon  every  Christian  to 
instant  prayer,  sacrifice,  and  effort  in  order  that 
a  loving  Father  and  a  saving  Christ  may  be  made 
known  to  the  millions  of  India. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  CHAPTER   IV 

Aim:    To   Realize   the   Value   and   Limitations   of 
THE  Great  Religions  of  India 

I . . .  The  General  Atmosphere. 

1.*  From  what  you  know  of  Indian  society  to 
what  extent  should  you  consider  the  beliefs  of 
the  average  man  to  be  based  on  intelligent 
convictions? 

2,*  How  does  the  mental  atmosphere  'conduce  to- 
ward intelligent  individual  opinions  as  com- 
pared with  that  of  the  United  States? 

3.  What  does  the  wide  prevalence  of  crude  animis- 

tic  beliefs   testify   as   to  the   religious    atmos- 
phere? 

4.  What   seems   to   be   the   relative  importance   of 

ceremonial    customs,    theological    beliefs,    and 
morality? 


124        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

11... The  Influence  of  Physical  Surroundings. 

5.*  What  influence  of  climate  and  physical  sur- 
roundings can  you  trace  in  the  religions  na- 
tive to  India? 

6.  What  influence  would  the  grinding  poverty  of 

the  masses  have  upon  religious  development? 

7.  What  would  be  the  effect  of  centuries  of  help- 

lessness against  invasion  and  of  oppression? 

8.  What  is  the  tendency  of  a  hot  and  moist  climate 

upon   character?     Of  a   vegetable   and  insufla- 
cient  diet? 

III...Owr  Spirit  of  Approach. 

9.  In  what  spirit  ought  we  to  approach  representa- 

tives of  these  religions? 
10.*  Give  some  rules  in  regard  to  argument  with 

them? 
11.*  What  use  should  you  make  of  the  strongest 

points     in     their     religions?      What     of     the 

weakest? 

12.  What  would  most  attract  you  in  one  who  was 
seeking  to  convert  you  to  another  religion? 

2i. .  .To  Buddhism. 

13.  What  ideals  should  you  have  in  common  with 

a   sincere  middle   class  Buddhist?     What  use 
should  you  make  of  these? 

14.  What  are  the  fatal  weaknesses  of  his  system? 
15.*  How  should  you  endeavor  to  get  him  to  realize 

these  as  weaknesses?     Give  suggestions  in  re- 
gard to  each  point. 

b...To  Mohammedanism. 
16.  What  points  of  contact  should  you  have  with  a 
sincere  orthodox  Mohammedan? 


The  EeligioDS  125 

17.  What  elements  in  Christianity  would  most  at- 
tract his  sympathy? 

18.  What  should  you  consider  to  be  his  greatest 
religious  hindrances  and  needs? 

19.*  How  could  you  awaken  his  desire  for  some- 
thing he  did  not  possess? 

c.  .To  Hinduism. 

20.  How  should  you  begin  to  speak  to  an  audience 

of  ignorant  Hindu  villagers  who  had  never  be- 
fore heard  the  gospel? 

21.  What  do  you  think  would  constitute  their  chief 

aspirations  and  fears? 
22.*    How   could   you   utilize   these   in   presenting 

Christianity? 
23.  How  should  you  deal  with  an  educated  Hindu 

gentleman? 
24.*  How  would  his  pantheism  affect  his  ideas  of 

the   universe?     Of  the   holiness    of   God?     Of 

personal  conscience  and  effort? 

25.  How  would  his  views  of  existence  differ  from 
yours? 

26.  What  points  of  agreement  with  him  do  you 
think  you  could  find? 

27.*  What  kind  of  appeal  do  you  think  might 
arouse  a  response? 

rV . . .  The  Need  of  Christianity. 

28.  State  how  the  Christian  idea  of  God  combines 
the  excellences  of  the  Mohammedan  and  Hindu 
conceptions? 

29.  What  does  it  contain  that  they  both  lack? 
30.*   What   change   will   it   bring   to   the   lives   of 

Buddhists,  Moslems,  and  Hindus  to  know  God 
as  revealed  in  Christ? 


126        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

31.  To  what  extent  are  we  responsible  for  bringing 

about  this  change? 

32.  How  suflacient  does  the  strength  of  man  seem 
to  you  to  be  to  change  the  lives  of  these 
people? 

33.  How  can  we  help  to  add  the  power  of  God  to 
the  efforts  that  are  being  made? 

References  fob  Advanced  Study. — Chapter  IV 
1. .  .Buddhism. 

Barth:  The  Religions  of  India,  III. 
Cochrane:  Among  the  Burmans,  V. 
Gushing:    Religions   of  Mission  Fields,  IV. 
Hopkins:    Religions  of  India,  XIII. 
Mitchell:  The  Great  Religions  of  India,  IV. 

II. .  .Mohammedanism. 

Beach:   India  and  Christian  Opportunity,  116-121. 
Mitchell:  The  Great  Religions  of  India,  V. 
Zwemer:  Religions  of  Mission  Fields,  IX. 

III. .  .Hitiduism. 

Barth:   The  Religions  of  India,  V. 

Beach:   India  and  Christian  Opportunity,  121-145= 

Chamberlain:   In  the  Cobra's  Den,  X. 

Janvier:    Religions  of  Mission  Fields,  III. 

Jones:  India's  Problem:  Krishna  or  Christ,  62-76. 

Mitchell:    The  Great  Religions  of  India,  II. 

lY... Other  Native  Religions. 

Barth:   The  Religions  of  India,  IV. 

Beach:   India  and  Christian  Opportunity,  110,  116. 

Hopkins:  Religions  of  India,  XII,  XVIII. 

Hurst:  Indika,  425,  431. 

Thornton:  Parsi,  Jain,  and  Sikh. 


Christian  Conquerors  127 

X. .  .Hinduism  and  Christianity  Contrasted. 
Hume:  Missions  from  the  Modern  View,  V. 
Jones:  India's  Problem:  Krishna  or  Christ,  III,  IV. 
Robson:     Hinduism    and    Its    Relation    to    Chris- 
tianity, Pt.  IV,  Chap.  I. 


CHRISTIAN  CONQUERERS 


CHAPTER   V 
CHRISTIAN  CONQUERORS 

The   people   of  India,   throughout   the  whole   a  most 

.,  T       ,  .      .  rv      ,     Accessible 

empire,  are  more  aeeessible  to  missionary  eiiort  pieid 
than  any  other  equal  number  of  non-Christian 
people  on  the  face  of  the  globe.  The  Christian 
missionary  may  expect  a  certain  measure  of  hos- 
tility, or  at  least,  of  opposition,  from  almost  any 
race  among  whom  he  may  go,  with  the  expressed 
purpose  of  supplanting  their  religion,  and  in 
Bome  cases  he  may  anticipate  violence  at  the 
hands  of  his  opponents.  This  is  especially  the 
rule  in  early  stages  of  the  work,  and  wise  mis- 
sionaries will  neither  be  surprised  nor  discouraged 
when  signs  of  opposition  begin  to  appear.  But 
it  is  surprising  to  observe  the  state  of  things  which 
now  prevails  in  India.  The  gospel  is  preached 
freely  everywhere,  and  the  object  of  the  missiona- 
ries is  stated  in  the  clearest  terms,  but,  with  an 
occasional  exception,  no  disturbance  is  caused  and 
no  displeasure  or  alarm  manifested.  The  Moham- 
medans are  less  open  to  evangelization  than  the 
Hindus,  but  if  the  missionary  is  discreet,  even  they 
will  make  no  unfriendly  demonstration.  In  other 
words,  religious  liberty,  free  speech,  and  a  free 
press  prevail  without  challenge  and  without  pro- 
test in  almost  the  entire  country. 
131 


132        Tlie  Christian  Conquest  of  India 


Nestorian  Christians 


Nestortaa  or 
Syrlaa 


They  Main- 
tain their 
Independence 


The  earl}^  Portuguese  settlers  in  India  were 
amazed  and  in  a  measure  confounded  to  find  a 
large  community  of  Christians  living  in  southern 
India.  These  people  did  not  differ  much  from  their 
Indian  neighbors  in  appearance  or  in  character,  but 
they  had  a  recognized  place  in  the  community  as 
Christians,  and  affirmed  that  they  were  connected 
with  the  IS'estorian  branch  of  the  ancient  Church. 
How  they  had  come  into  existence  in  India  was 
not  known,  and  no  certain  light  has  been  shed 
upon  this  problem  in  the  centuries  which  have 
since  passed.  They  are  popularly  known  as 
Syrian  Christians,  and  it  is  possible  that  they  are 
the  remnants  of  Christian  communities  which  are 
known  to  have  existed  in  India  as  far  back  as  the 
second  century. 

The  Portuguese  adventurers  and  missionaries 
who  first  found  these  Syrian  Christians  in  India, 
were  sorely  disappointed  when  they  discovered 
that  they  stood  in  no  ecclesiastical  relation  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  at  once  endeavored 
to  induce  them  to  acknowledge  the  authority  of 
the  Pope,  but  they  soon  found  that  this  was  not 
an  easy  task.  Although  they  were  relentlessly  per- 
secuted, the  Syrian  Christians  still  maintained 
their  own  distinct  character. 


*An  early  sect  of  Christians  named  after  Nestorius, 
patriarch  of  Constantinople,  in  the  fifth  century  A.  D, 


Oldest  Syrian  Church  in  India  at  Kottayam 


Henry  Martyn's  Pagoda 
Ancient  Structure  at  Serampur  Used  by  Him  for  a  Temporary 
Place  of  Study   ' 


Christian  Conquerors 


133 


Xavier  and  the  Roman  Catholic  Missions 


The  Portuguese  adopted  the  policy  of  introduc- 
ing the  Christian  religion  among  their  subjects  in 
their  eastern  possessions  by  the  use  of  arts  of 
various  kinds,  but  more  especially  by  the  direct 
exercise  of  authority,  and  they  seemed  to  meet 
with  a  large  measure  of  nominal  success.  But 
the  change  which  took  place  both  in  individuals 
and  communities  was  chiefly  external,  and  in  most 
cases  where  compulsion  had  been  used,  the  first 
opportunity  for  discarding  the  new  faith  was 
eagerly  embraced. 

Any  account  of  the  early  Eoman  Catholic  mis- 
sions in  India  would  be  very  incomplete  which  did 
not  assign  a  prominent  place  to  the  famous  Jesuit 
apostle,  Francis  Xavier.  The  career  of  this  extraor- 
dinary man  was  remarkable,  but  his  work  was 
superficial  in  the  extreme.  It  was  his  custom  to 
prepare  a  few  very  simple  lessons,  including  the 
Creed,  the  Ten  Commandments,  the  Ave  Maria, 
and  the  Lord's  Prayer,  and  to  have  these  memo- 
rized by  boys  who  were  to  teach  them  to  the  people. 
He  found  no  difficulty  in  collecting  large  audi- 
ences, armed  as  he  was  with  royal  authority,  and 
when  he  went  forth  into  the  streets  with  a  bell  to 
summon  the  people  to  come  forth  to  his  services 
he  never  failed  to  meet  with  a  prompt  response. 

One  year  sufficed  to  convince  Xavier  that  he 
could  not  achieve  success  on  a  large  scale  in  India, 


Portuguese 
Use  of 
Authority 


Xavier  and 
His  Ritualistic 
Method 


Idea  of 

Using 

'•Kings' 


134:        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

so  he  began  to  look  for  a  more  hopeful  field.  He 
also  began  to  consider  new  plans  for  securing 
larger  and  more  enduring  results,  and  at  one  time 
he  became  much  impressed  with  a  plan  for  con- 
verting "kings,"  a  title  which  he  seems  to  have 
given  to  every  petty  prince  or  chief  whom  he  met. 
His  new  ideal  was  that  of  securing  the  submission 
and  conversion  of  a  native  prince  or  chief,  and 
then  inducing  him  to  order  his  subjects  to  receive 
baptism  and  at  the  same  time  to  become  responsi- 
ble for  keeping  them  faithful  to  their  new  obliga- 
tions. But  the  scheme  was  utterly  impracticable, 
for  the  "kings"  did  not  respond  either  to  his 
appeals  or  his  demands. 
Advised  In  his  later  days,  Xavier  so  far  yielded  to  the 

Setting  up  of  temptation  to  adopt  sheer  force  in  maintaining 

Inquisition  r  r  o 

the  authority  of  the  church  and  advancing  his 
interests,  that  he  wrote  to  the  Pope  advising  that 
a  branch  of  the  Inquisition,  then  newly  established 
in  Europe,  should  be  set  up  in  India,  and  this 
terrible  expedient  was  actually  adopted,  but  not 
until  after  his  death. 
Later  About  fifty  ycars  after  the  death  of  Xavier,  the 

Jesuit  Jesuits  established  a  strono^  mission  on  the  east 

Failure  . 

coast  of  southern  India,  and  were  led  even  to 
attempt  the  winning  of  the  people  to  their  faith 
by  methods  of  deception  and  imposture,  but  in  the 
end  such  methods  only  ended  in  disastrous  failure, 
unprogressive  Descendants  of  the  early  Eoman  Catholic  con- 
Descendants      ygp^s  are  still  fouud  in  large  numbers  in  western 


Christian  Conquerors 


135 


and  southern  India,  where  they  are  popularly 
known  as  Portuguese  Christians.  They  constitute 
a  distinct  class  in  the  general  Christian  commu- 
nity, and  have  not  made  much  progress  in  educa- 
tion or  social  position. 


Danish  Settlements  and  the  Pioneer  Protestant 
Missionaries 

Unlike  the  other  European  powers  in  the  East,  Denmark's 
the  Danish  government  protected  missionaries  at  p''°^'^^'' 
all  its  settlements,  and  while  making  the  mistake 
which  was  common  to  all  governments  in  that  age, 
of  trying  to  administer  missionary  affairs  under 
the  strict  control  of  the  secular  power,  it  yet 
avoided  serious  mistakes  for  the  most  part,  and 
succeeded  in  choosing  some  good  and  true  men  as 
pioneers  of  the  Christian  enterprise. 

In  1705  Ziegenbalg  and  Plutschau  were  sent  ziegenbaig 
out  as  the  first  missionaries  from  Denmark,  and  p^utg^hau 
the  first  Protestant  missionaries  who  have  been 
generally  recognized  as  belonging  rightfully  to 
the  great  missionary  brotherhood  of  the  Eastern 
world.  They  were  located  in  Tranquebar,  a 
Danish  possession  on  the  extreme  southeastern 
coast  of  India,  and  at  once  began  to  study  the 
language  and  engage  in  such  efforts  for  the  good 
of  the  settlement  as  lay  in  their  power.  But 
opposition  was  soon  developed;  not  among  the 
natives,  but  as  so  often  happened  in  early  days  in 


136        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 


Pioneers  in 

Modefn 

Lines 


Converts  and 
The  Press 


India,  the  officials  in  charge  of  the  settlement 
became  hostile,  and  Ziegenbalg  was  thrown  into 
prison.  ISTo  cable  could  carry  the  news  to  Europe 
in  those  days,  and  a  long  time  elapsed  before  he 
regained  his  liberty.  But  the  work  went  on,  and 
was  extended  to  the  neighboring  kingdom  of  Tan- 
jore,  and  a  little  later  to  Tinnevelli.  Later  still, 
Madras  was  occupied  as  a  missionary  station,  and 
for  many  years  the  Danish  organization  was 
known  as  "the  Coast  Mission." 

These  Danish  missionaries  made  some  grave 
mistakes,  but  on  the  other  hand  they  established 
some  valuable  precedents  which  are  widely  fol- 
lowed to  the  present  day.  They  were  the  pioneers 
in  the  work  of  Bible  translation,  and  within  three 
years  they  had  taken  up  the  important  work  of 
preparing  a  suitable  literature  in  the  Tamil  lan- 
guage for  the  people  among  whom  they  were  to 
live.  They  were  the  first  missionaries  to  use  the 
agency  of  schools,  not  merely  as  an  ally  of  civiliza- 
tion, but  as  an  aid  to  their  missionary  enterprise. 
Numerous  itinerations  were  made  among  the 
people,  and,  in  short,  mission  work  in  elementary 
ways  at  least,  was  established  on  lines  not  essen- 
tially different  from  those  now  employed. 

Success  attended  these  good  men  from  the  first. 
By  the  end  of  three  and  one  half  years,  they  had 
gathered  around  them  one  hundred  and  sixty  con- 
verts, and  ten  years  later  the  number  had  quad- 
rupled.    A  flourishing  station  was  established  in 


i 

Christian  Conquerors                   137  1 

] 

Madras,  and  the  missionaries  began  to  preach  in  j 
Telugu  and  Portuguese  as  well  as  in  Tamil.    'No                 ^        ' 

less  than  one  hundred  and  forty  persons  were  bap-  j 

tized  in  Madras  in  a  single  year.    The  publications  i 

of  their  press  were  in  eager  demand  in  Bombay  | 

and  other  distant  places,  and  some  of  them  even  : 

found  their  way  to  important  towns  in  northern  1 

India.  i 

A  new  era  may  be  dated  in  the  history  of  the   Schwartz  \ 
Danish   mission   from   the    arrival    of    Christian 
Friedrich  Schwartz  in  1750.    This  extraordinary 

man  is  universally  conceded  to  have  been  one  of  j 

the  greatest  leaders  who  has  appeared  in  the  mis-  j 

sionary  ranks  in  India.    He  was  a  gifted  man,  a  I 
devoted    Christian,    an    untiring    and    unselfish 
worker,  a  good  organizer,  and  had  in  his  person 

nearly  all  the  elements  which  enter  into  the  char-  ; 

acter  of  a  leader  of  men.    At  the  time  of  his  arri-  ' 

val  the  first  generation  of  missionaries  had  nearly  : 

all  passed  away.     Troublous  times  were  at  hand  I 

in  southern  India  and  he  seemed  to  be  the  provi-  j 
dential  man  to  breast  the  coming  storms.    He  won 
the  favor  of  hostile  Frenchmen,  was  trusted  by 
Hindu  and  Mohammedan  rulers  without  hesita- 
tion, and  became  the  agent  of  British  rulers  in 

negotiations  of  great  delicacy  and  of  supreme  im-  i 

portance.     For  the  first  sixteen  years  his  field  of  ■ 

labor  was  in  Tranquebar  and  its  neighborhood,  ] 

but  his  activities  were   afterward  largely  trans-  j 

ferred  to   Trichinopoli   and   Tanjore.      In   both  ' 


138        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

places  he  was  able  to  secure  the  erection  of 
churches  through  the  liberal  gifts  which  his  char- 
acter and  services  called  forth  from  English  civil- 
ians and  soldiers  and  native  rulers.  It  was  in 
1779  that  he  was  entrusted  by  the  officials  at 
Madras  with  a  conciliatory  mission  to  Hyder  All, 
the  prince  who  was  exercising  control  in  the  king- 
dom of  Mysore.  "Send  me  the  Christian,"  said 
the  suspicious  ruler,  "he  will  not  deceive  me." 
As  one  result,  Schwartz  by  his  intercession  was 
able  to  save  the  district  of  Cuddalore  from 
destruction  by  the  savage  hordes  of  the  enemy. 
When  Hyder  forced  upon  him  a  present  of  three 
hundred  rupees,  the  unselfish  missionary  gave  it 
to  the  English  authorities  to  be  applied  to  the 
building  of  an  orphan  asylum  in  Tanjore. 
Evangelistic  He  was  an  evangelist  in  his  method  of  mis- 
sionary labor,  and  led  many  thousands  into  the 
Christian  Church.  It  has  been  estimated  that 
there  were  50,000  Christians  connected  with  the 
Danish  mission  at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. The  host  of  converts  who  were  thus  rallied 
under  the  banner  of  Schwartz  and  his  associates 
were  not  all  lost  to  Christianity.  Some  of  them 
or  their  descendants  no  doubt  were  absorbed  by 
other  missions  or  churches  in  later  years,  though 
the  numbers  of  Christians  in  their  several  fieldi 
by  1850,  was  surprisingly  small.^ 

^Sherring,  History/  of  Protestant  Missions  in  India, 
51. 


Success 


Christian  Conquerors  139 

British  Beginning  made  by  William  Carey 

In  the  inauguration  of  the  first  real  attempt  of 
Great  Britain  to  evangelize  India,  God  chose  a 
leader  whom  man  never  could  have  chosen.  Wil- 
liam Carey  gave  little  promise  in  early  life  of 
achieving  success  in  his  chosen  calling,  or  for  that 
matter,  in  any  calling.  His  genius  seemed  to  the 
dull-minded  people  around  him,  an  eccentricity; 
his  absorbed  thoughtfulness,  a  mark  of  stupidity. 
As  a  country  shoemaker  he  was  barely  able  to  make 
a  living,  and  as  a  pastor  of  a  small  Baptist  church, 
he  prospered  but  little  better.  But  he  thought; 
he  absorbed  knowledge  as  if  by  instinct,  and  he 
developed  a  marvelous  ability  to  master  both 
ancient  and  modern  languages.  Such  a  man  com- 
pelled both  respect  and  attention;  and  when  he 
began  to  talk  about  the  duty  of  Christ's  Church  to 
evangelize  the  world,  it  became  certain  that  the 
missionary  cause  would  get  a  hearing  in  at  least 
one  somewhat  remote  community.  Nothing  could 
discourage,  and  certainly  nothing  could  silence 
this  persistent  advocate  of  a  great  idea;  and  soon 
friends  began  to  rally  around  the  standard  which 
he  had  set  up.  His  plans,  as  viewed  in  the  light 
of  the  present  day,  do  not  appear  to  have  been 
wise  or  even  practicable ;  but  the  supreme  duty  of 
the  hour  was  recognized  and  boldly  proclaimed  by 
him,  and  his  voice  began  to  be  like  that  of  an  old- 
time  prophet. 


William 
Carey 


140        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

Baptist  •  After  many  discouragements,  it  was  decided  to 
sodety"^'^^  discuss  the  question  at  a  meeting  of  Baptist  min- 
isters to  be  held  at  Kettering ;  and  on  this  occasion 
Carey  preached  a  sermon  of  extraordinary  pathos 
and  power,  which  produced  a  remarkable  impres- 
sion upon  his  brethren  and  led  to  the  immediate 
organization  of  what  is  now  the  Baptist  Mission- 
ary Society.  But  all  this  happened  in  a  somewhat 
obscure  country  district,  and  the  new  society  had 
very  few  friends  and  no  visible  resources.  In  Lon- 
don the  Baptist  leaders  looked  upon  the  Kettering 
movement  almost  as  an  impertinence.  In  all  ages 
alike,  Jerusalem  is  offended  if  Nazareth  becomes 
the  starting-point  of  a  new  evangel.  But  the  men 
who  had  associated  themselves  with  Carey  in  this 
great  enterprise  were  not  wanting  either  in 
courage  or  devotion,  and  no  further  time  was  lost 
in  talk. 
Carey  goes  to  Bcf  orc  his  uotablc  scrmou  Carey  had  preached 
a  sermon  at  the  meeting  of  the  Baptist  ^Association 
in  which  his  theme  was  summarized  in  the  now 
famous  words  that  have  become  one  of  the  best 
known  missionary  mottoes:  "Expect  great  things 
from  God ;  attempt  great  things  for  God.^^  These 
two  phrases  give  the  keynote  of  his  life.  The  obsta- 
cles seemed  almost  too  great  to  be  overcome  in  the 
way  of  his  going  to  India,  the  chief  being  the  oppo- 
sition to  the  presence  of  missionaries  on  the  part 
of  the  British  East  India  Company.  But  a  way  was 
providentially  opened  for  him  and  his  family  to 


Indi 


Christian  Conquerors 


141 


Work  at 

Mudnabatty 


go  on  a  Danish  ship,  and  they  reached  Calcutta, 
November  11,  1793.  The  date  is  that  from  v/hich 
the  modern  era  of  missionary  conquest  of  India  is 
now  reckoned.  True  to  his  motto,  it  was  not  long 
before  Carey  was  attempting  great  things  for  God. 

The  poor  cobbler  of  England,  with  scant  provi- 
sion for  support  from  the  homeland,  soon  had 
opened  to  him  at  Mudnabatty,  a  hundred  and  fifty 
miles  north  of  Calcutta,  the  superintendency  of  an 
indigo  factory  at  a  salary  of  $300  a  year,  yet  with 
such  duties  that  he  had  time  for  the  work  of  his 
mission.  Plunging  into  the  study  of  Bengali,  he 
was  able  in  a  few  months  to  begin  preaching  in 
that  language  among  the  two  hundred  villages 
around  him,  while  he  gave  careful  attention  to  the 
spiritual  needs  of  the  many  native  workmen 
emplo3Td  in  the  factory.  At  the  same  time  he 
began  his  great  work  of  translating  the  Scriptures 
into  Bengali.  Thus  at  Mudnabatty  for  more  than 
five  years  from  1794  to  1800,  Carey  provided  for 
his  own  expenses,  while  doing  a  vast  amount  of 
missionary  work,  mastered  the  Bengali  language, 
and  began  the  translating  of  the  Bible  into  that 
tongue  by  completing  the  New  Testament. 

In  the  year  1800  commenced  the  era  of  his  set-  At  serampur 
tlement  with  other  missionaries  at  Serampur,  a 
town  ab9ut  fifteen  miles  north  of  Calcutta  and 
then  under  Danish  control.  Here  occurred  the 
scene  when  Carey  was  permitted  to  baptize  in  the 
Hugli  Eiver,  first  his  own  son  Felix,  using  English 


142        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 


Professor  at 
Fort  William 
College 


'Work  as 
Translator 


words,  and  then  Krishna  Pal,  his  first  Hindu  con- 
vert, with  the  baptismal  formula  in  Bengali.  It  is 
not  strange  that  the  governor  of  the  Danish  settle- 
ment who  was  present  could  not  restrain  his  tears 
of  emotion  at  the  sight. 

In  1801  Carey's  translation  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment into  Bengali  was  issued.  The  eminent 
scholarship  which  it  disclosed  led  to  his  call  to  the 
chair  of  Bengali  in  the  government  college  at  Fort 
William,  Calcutta.  His  first  position  was  that  of 
teacher  of  Bengali,  afterward  of  Sanskrit  and  of 
Marathi,  with  a  salary  of  $3,000  per  year.  It  was 
not  long  before  he  became  professor  of  these  three 
languages,  and  his  emoluments  rose  to  $7,500  a 
year;^  but  the  whole  of  this  income,  excepting 
about  $200  annually  needed  for  the  support  of  his 
family,  was  devoted  to  the  interests  of  the  mis- 
sion.* This  position  he  held  with  highest  success 
and  honor  until  1830,  within  four  years  of  his 
death. 

Either  under  his  superintendence  or  by  himself, 
translations  of  the  Scriptures  were  made  in  thirty- 
five  languages  or  dialects.  Of  these,  six  were  of 
the  whole  Bible;  twenty-two  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, five  including  also  a  considerable  part  of  the 
Old  Testament ;  and  seven  of  portions  of  the  New 
Testament.^     A  great   multitude   of  tr^ts   were 

^Sherring,  History  of  Protestant  Missions  in  India, 
63 
'Creegan,  Great  Missionaries  of  the  Church,  52,  53. 
®Beach,  India  and  Christian  Opportunity,  170. 


Christian  Conquerors  143 

issued,  as  well  as  books  for  schools  and  colleges. 
As  early  as  1810  Carey  had  five  mission  centers  in 
operation,  in  Bengal,  Bhutan,  Burma,  Orissa,  and 
the  new  station  at  Agra.  By  the  close  of  1816  the 
Serampur  missionaries  had  baptized  about  700 
native  converts,  and  in  their  schools  Christian 
instruction  had  been  imparted  to  more  than 
10,000  heathen  children.' 

Dr.  Carey  wrote  grammars  and  elementary  text-  Learning  and 
books  of  many  of  the  languages  that  he  acquired. 
He  possessed  wide  knowledge  of  the  arts  and 
sciences.  Improvements  were  made  in  the  native 
paper  for  press  purposes,  rendering  it  proof  against 
destruction  by  insects,  a  steam  engine  was 
imported  to  work  the  paper  mill,  and  practical 
knowledge  was  applied  to  botany  and  agriculture, 
resulting  in  great  material  benefits  to  India.  He 
cared  little  for  the  many  honors  which  came  to  j 

him,  or  for  worldly  praise.    His  work  was  to  make  j 

Christ  known,  to  impart  to  India's  millions  the  i 

Word  of  God,  to  stop  cruel  sacrifices  such  as  those  i 

of  children  at  the  great  annual  festival  at  Gunga  ; 

Sangor;  to  secure  the  abolition  of  the  awful  cus-  ! 

tom  of  widow-burning  on  the  pyre  of  the  dead  bus-  ^ 

band.    He  had  the  joy  in  1829  of  translating  into  j 

Bengali  the  decree  and  proclamation  which  forever  I 

put  an  end  to  this  horrible  practice  of  Hinduism.  ^ 

He  laid  the  foundations  broad  and  deep  of  the  | 

^Sherring,  History  of  Protestant  Missions  in  India,  \ 

175.  ^ 


144        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

great  Protestant  missionary  movement  not  only  in 
India  bnt  in  all  the  Orient.  For  forty-one  yeiars 
unbroken  by  return  to  England,  he  toiled  for 
India's   Christian  conquest,  his   death   occurring 


t  CKFT 


EASTERN  INDIA 


June  9,  1834.  Surely  William  Carey  not  only 
attempted  but  accomplished  great  things  for  God ; 
be  expected  and  received  great  things  from  God. 


Christian  Conquerors 


145 


Creative  Power  of  Carey's  Letters  and  Influence 

Two  great  missionary  impulses,  each  of  far- 
reaching  significance,  appeared,  one  in  the  closing 
years  of  the  eighteenth  century  and  the  other  in 
the  early  years  of  the  nineteenth,  both  arising  from 
the  effect  of  Dr.  William  Carey's  letters  from 
India.  In  Great  Britain  these  letters  aroused  such 
conviction  and  interest  among  non-Baptists  as 
resulted  in  1795  in  the  organization  of  the  London 
Missionary  Society  which  has  largely  been  the 
agency  for  the  missionary  work  of  the  Indepen- 
dents, or  Congregationalists,  of  the  British  Isles. 
Somewhat  later  Dr.  Carey's  letters  came  to  Amer- 
ica and  produced  a  similar  missionary  awakening, 
which  found  organic  expression  in  1810  in  the 
American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign 
Missions,  now  almost  wholly  the  channel  of  the 
missionary  operations  of  the  Congregationalists  of 
the  United  States.  Carey's  influence  also  pre- 
pared the  way  for  later  Baptist  missionary  organi- 
zation in  the  United  States,  as  interest  in  his  work 
and  that  of  his  associates  led  the  members  of  Bap- 
tist churches  in  America  to  send  to  England  con- 
tributions in  their  aid,  sometimes  to  the  amount 
of  several  thousand  dollars  a  year. 


Giving 
Impulse  to 
Missionary 
Organization 


Other  Men  of  Might 

Henry    Martyn    received    his    first    missionary   Henry 
impulse  while  still  at  Cambridge,  from  a  remark   *«*"y» 


146        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

of  the  Eev.  Charles  Simeon,  the  university 
preacher,  on  the  good  accomplished  by  a  single 
missionary,  Carey,  in  India.  The  impression  was 
intensified  by  his  reading  The  Life  of  David 
Brainerd,  and  he  decided  to  give  himself  to  mis- 
sion work.  The  need  of  providing  support  for  a 
sister  led  him  to  accept  a  chaplaincy  under  the 
East  India  Company,  but  his  was  not  less  a  soul 
aflame  with  missionary  devotion.  On  the  passage 
out  he  studied  Sanskrit,  Persian,  and  Arabic. 
Arriving  in  India  in  1806,  he  displayed  a  quench- 
less zeal  and  exerted  and  left  a  marvelous  influ- 
ence, which  taken  with  his  brief  years  of  service 
and  the  disappointment  of  his  hopes  of  domestic 
joys,  has  caused  his  name  to  be  instinctively  linked 
with  that  of  Brainerd.  "Now  let  me  burn  out  for 
God/^  he  wrote  two  days  after  his  arrival  in 
Calcutta. 
At  Dinapur  Soon  he  was  far  up  the  Ganges  at  Dinapur  near 
Patna,  with  the  two  regiments  to  which  he  had 
been  assigned  as  chaplain.  In  a  letter  to  England 
he  says,  "I  fag  as  hard  here  as  ever  we  did  for  our 
degrees  at  Cambridge.  The  heat  is  terrible,  often 
at  98  degrees,  the  nights  insupportable.^^  Yet  he 
was  engaged  in  translating  the  New  Testament 
into  Hindustani,  and  at  the  same  time  was  pre- 
paring a  book  on  the  parables  of  our  Lord,  and  a 
translation  of  the  Book  of  Common  Praj^er.  He 
held  almost  daily  discussions  with  Hindus  and 
Mohammedans,  and  cared  for  vernacular  schools 


Christian  Conquerors 


147 


which  he  had  organized  and  was  supporting  from 
his  own  purse.  In  addition  to  all  this,  his  duties 
as  chaplain  to  the  English  troops  and  civilians 
were  faithfully  performed.  In  March,  1808, 
Martyn^s  Hindustani  translation  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament was  completed.  On  the  twelfth  of  the 
same  month  a  new  church  edifice  for  which  he  had 
earnestly  labored  was  opened  for  divine  service. 

Shortly  afterward  came  the  transference  of  his 
chaplaincy  to  the  troops  at  Cawnpur.  Here  almost 
the  same  labors  as  at  Dinapur  for  troops,  civilians, 
children,  and  for  a  church  building  were  carried 
forward,  while  with  Sabat,  an  Arab,  who  had 
been  baptized  at  Madras,  Persian  and  Arabic  ver- 
sions of  the  New  Testament  were  undertaken. 
Even  an  open  air  assembly  of  beggars  was  con- 
ducted Sunday  by  Sunday  during  the  eighteen 
months  of  Mart^-n's  labors  at  Cawnpur.  It  bore 
unexpected  fruit,  for  a  young  Mussulman,  who 
with  others  first  watched  this  meeting  with  scorn, 
was  through  it  won  to  Christ,  became  a  native 
preacher,  with  the  name  Abdul  Masih,  "servant  of 
Christ,^'  and  was  instrumental  in  leading  many 
to  the  Saviour,  one  being  the  chief  physician  of 
the  Eajah  of  Bhurtpur. 

Under  his  intense  labors,  together  with  the 
effect  of  the  climate,  the  health  of  the  young  chap- 
lain began  to  decline,  and  there  were  admonitory 
signs  of  consumption.  It  was  also  seen,  after 
his   Persian  translation   of  the   Xew   Testament 


At  Cawnpur 


His  Farewell 
to  India 


148        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

appeared^  that  it  would  be  desirable  to  go  into 
Arabia  and  Persia,  that  he  might  more  success- 
fully solve  the  problem  of  the  idiomatic  rendering 
of  the  'New  Testament  into  Arabic  and  Persian. 
On  the  last  Sabbath  of  September,  1810,  he  took 
leave  of  his  European  congregation  in  Cawnpur. 
On  that  very  day  the  church  edifice,  the  erection  of 
which  he  had  promoted,  was  opened  for  divine 
service,  and  it  continued  to  be  the  military  church 
of  Cawnpur  till  1857,  when  it  was  destroyed  by  the 
mutineers.  After  leaving  India,  a  year  was  spent 
at  Shiraz  in  carrying  through  the  fresh  transla- 
tion of  the  New  Testament  into  Persian. 
A  Hero's  Finally  after  a  measure  of  recovery  from  more 
Triumph  gerious  illness,  this  frail  man  of  indomitable  will 
started  on  a  horseback  journey  of  1,300  miles  to 
Constantinople,  hoping  thus  to  make  his  way  back 
to  England.  Such  a  ride  would  have  taxed  the 
endurance  of  the  strongest,  and  the  stages  of  the 
course  were  traversed  with  brutal  haste  by  Hassan, 
a  Turkish  attendant.  What  wonder  that  on  Octo- 
ber 6,  when  a  fresh  relay  of  horses  were  not  to  be 
had,  Martyn  should  write:  "I  sat  in  the  orchard 
and  thought  with  sweet  comfort  and  peace  of  my 
God,  in  solitude  my  Company,  my  Friend  and 
Comforter.  0  when  shall  time  give  place  to  eter- 
nity? When  shall  appear  that  new  heaven  and 
new  earth  wherein  dwelleth  righteousness  ?"  For 
him  the  transition  was  close  at  hand  from  pain 
and  hardship  to  release  and  triumph,  for  on  Octo- 


Christian  Conquerors  149 

ber  16,  1812,  he  reached  Tocat,  and  passed  away, 
and  his  body  was  there  laid  to  rest  in  the  Arme- 
nian cemetery.  His  influence,  like  that  of  Brain- 
erd^s  is  nndying,  and  of  the  kind  that  has  created 
many  missionaries.  Though  permitted  to  give 
but  four  brief  years  of  service  to  India,  his  name 
is  joined  imperishably  with  the  Christian  conquest 
of  the  Orient ;  and  his  versions  of  the  ISTew  Testa- 
ment in  Hindustani  and  Persian,  spoken  by  many- 
millions  of  people,  are  enduring  monuments  to  his 
scholarship  and  missionary  devotion. 

"Adoniram  Judson,"  says  Dr.   George   Smith,   Adoniram 
"is  surpassed  by  no  missionary  since  the  apostle  J""^^"" 
Paul  in  self-devotion  and  scholarship,  in  labors 
and  perils,  in  saintliness  and  humility,  and  in  the 
result  of  his  toils  on  the  future  of  an  empire  and 
its  multitudinous  peoples."^ 

After  his  conversion  and  preparation  for  mis-  Marriage  and 
sion  work  abroad,  Judson  was  married  in  1812  to 
Miss  Ann  Hasseltine,  and  sailed  with  his  bride 
from  Salem,  Massachusetts,  for  Calcutta.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  Congregational  Church  and  went 
out  under  the  American  Board,  but  on  the  long 
voyage  he  came  to  the  view  that  the  Baptist  belief 
was  more  nearly  in  agreement  with  the  Scriptures.. 
Accordingly,  after  arriving  at  Calcutta,  he  and  his 
wiie  were  received  into  fellowship  by  the  Baptist 
missionaries  at  Serampur,  and  he  resigned  his 
connection  with  the  American  Board.    Mr.  Rice, 

^Smith,  The  Conversion  of  India,  151. 


Arrival  in 
Burma 


150        The  ChLristian  Conquest  of  India 


Difficult 
Beginnings 


Disappoint- 
ment and 
Imprisonment 
at  Ava 


who  though  going  out  on  another  ship,  passed 
through  a  like  experience,  returned  to  America  to 
urge  the  organizing  of  a  Baptist  Missionary  Soci- 
ety, and  this  was  effected  in  1814.  Provision  was 
thus  made  for  sustaining  the  mission  to  Burma 
undertaken  by  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Judson,  and  after 
great  vicissitudes  they  reached  Eangoon,  July  13, 
1813. 

Burma  was  then  an  independent  empire  with 
a  population  of  about  eight  millions.  The  govern- 
ment was  an  absolute  despotism,  arbitrary  and 
cruel,  and  the  religion  was  Buddhism.  There 
were  two  languages  to  be  learned,  the  common 
Burmese  and  the  sacred  Pali.  Judson  at  once 
commenced  the  translation  of  the  Bible  into  the 
Burmese.  Eeinforcements  arrived  in  1816  and 
the  printing  press  began  to  put  tracts  and  portions 
of  the  Scriptures  into  circulation.  In  1819,  about 
six  years  after  his  arrival  in  Eangoon,  Judson  was 
able  to  begin  preaching  to  a  Burmese  audience  in 
their  own  tongue,  and  not  long  after  the  first  con- 
vert, Moung  Nau,  was  won  to  Christ.  Gradually 
others  were  added  till  in  1822  there  was  a  native 
church  of  eighteen  members. 

Judson  greatly  desired  to  plant  Christianity  at 
Ava,  the  capital  of  the  empire,^  and  for  this  pur- 
pose had  made  a  journey  by  boat  four  hundred 
miles  up  the  Irawadi  from  Eangoon,  and  secured 
an  interview  with  the  emperor,  but  without  avail 

^Ava  is  located  just  south  of  Mandalay. 


Christian  Conquerors  151 

as  far  as  permission  to  evangelize  the  natives  was 
concerned.  Leaving  the  little  church  at  Eangoon 
in  charge  of  others  who  had  come  to  reinforce  the 
mission,  Dr.  and  Mrs.  Judson  removed  to  Ava  in 
1823.  But  scarcely  had  they  arrived  before  war 
broke  out  between  the  English  and  the  emperor. 
Dr.  Judson  and  other  foreigners  were  thrown  into 
prison,  where  for  nine  months  he  lay  in  three 
pairs,  and  for  two  months  more  in  five  pairs  of 
fetters.  Then  for  six  months  more  he  remained 
in  a  country  prison  in  one  pair  of  fetters.  The 
prisons  were  indescribably  filthy,  and  for  greater 
security  the  prisoners  at  night  were  partly  sus- 
pended from  a  bamboo  pole.  For  the  rest  of  his 
life  Judson  bore  the  scars  of  the  fetters  he  w^ore  at 
Ava  and  the  prison  Oung-pen-la.  During  all  these 
months  his  devoted  wife  went  back  and  forth  amid 
the  burning  heat  and  among  the  mocking  foes 
daily  carrying  food  to  her  imprisoned  husband. 

In  her  girlhood  days  Mrs.  Judson  had  expressed  womanly 
a  desire  to  "ramble.'''  Truly  she  had  rambled  far  «"o«»« 
from  the  quiet  New  England  manse  from  which 
she  went  forth  as  a  bride,  but  it  was  for  the  sake 
of  the  souls  of  Burma  that  she  sought  to  make  one 
home  after  another  in  that  land,  and  with  her  hus- 
band pierced  its  jungles,  threaded  its  rivers,  lin- 
gered among  its  prisons,  and  at  length  with  their 
little  daughter  Maria  found  the  rest  that  is  undis- 

Adoniram  Judson:  A  BiograpJiy,  by  his  son  Ed- 
ward Judson,  D.D.,  27. 


152        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 


Service  at 
Maulmein  and 
Among  the 
Karens 


Immortal 
Words 


Finishing  a 

Masterly 

Course 


turbed,  beneath  the  hopia-tree  in  southern  Burma. 
She  is  but  one  of  the  many  examples  of  supreme 
heroism  among  the  wives  of  missionaries. 

The  principal  center  for  Judson^s  activities  was 
Maulmein  at  the  mouth  of  the  Sal  win,  southeast 
from  Eangoon  across  the  Gulf  of  Martaban.  From 
this  point,  aided  by  other  missionaries  and  native 
helpers,  he  did  much  to  extend  the  Christian 
movement  among  the  Karens.  To  reach  them 
required  excursions  to  be  made  into  the  jungles 
and  remote  recesses  among  the  hills  bordering  the 
valley  of  the  Salwin.  They  proved  most  suscep- 
tible to  missionary  effort.  Evangelization  also 
went  forward  rapidly  among  the  Burmans. 

Although  the  intolerance  of  the  court  at  Ava 
never  was  removed  during  Judson's  life,  he 
unceasingly  sought  to  extend  the  work  into  the 
heart  of  the  empire.  When  asked  as  to  the  pros- 
pects of  the  gospel  in  Burma,  his  reply  was  in  the 
famous  words  that  have  become  one  of  the  most 
inspiring  of  missionary  mottoes :  "The  prospects 
are  as  bright  as  the  promises  of  God." 

In  the  year  1834  Dr.  Judson  completed  his 
translation  of  the  entire  Bible  into  Burmese,  and 
about  seven  years  later  finished  the  revision,  which 
was  a  still  more  laborious  task.  It  was  a  stupen- 
dous work  to  be  carried  through  single-handed, 
and  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  successful  of 
versions.  He  also  compiled  a  Burmese  dictionary, 
and  was  the  author  of  writings  that  exerted  a 


Christian  Conquerors                   153  > 

] 

powerful  influence  in  Christianity's   long  battle  '< 

with  the  bigotry  and  intolerance  of  the  native  . 

Buddhistic  powers.     The  end  came  of  this  most  I 

strenuous  of  missionary  lives  in  1850,  on  a  ship  I 
bringing  the  worn  laborer  to  America,  and  almost 

fittingly  the  mortal  frame  of  a  soul  so  boundless  i 
in  its  purpose  and  endeavor  found  sepulcher  in  the 

illimitable  deep.     At  the  time  of  his  death  the  i 

native  Christians  numbered  7,000,  and  in  1905  i 

the    number    of    communicants    in    the    Baptist  ! 

churches  of  Burma  from  many  different  races,  ■ 

were  more  than  53,000.     He  laid  the  foundation  ' 

of  the  religion  of  Christ  deep  down  in  the  Burman  i 

heart,  and  no  power  of  opposition  has  been  able  to  I 

sweep  it  away.  : 

Charles    Simeon,    the    earnest    and    spiritual  Alexander 

preacher  at  Cambridge,  who  largely  inspired  the   ^"^  I 

formation  of  the  Church  Missionary  Society  and  ; 

kindled  the  soul  of  Henry  Mart}^  into  flame  for  j 

India,  by  a  chance  sermon  in  the  little  village  of  I 

^.loulin  during  a  trip  to  Scotland  probably  indi-  j 

rectty  won  another  great  missionary  for  India.  \ 

James  Duff  and  Jean  Rattray,  destined  to  be  the  ; 
father  and  mother  of  Alexander  Duff,  were  in  the 

little  village  kirk  that  day,  and  it  was  to  both  of  | 

them  the  beginning  of  a  new  life.    Born  in  1806,  i 

Dr.  Duff  attributed  his  first  missionary  impression  ■ 

to  that  father,  who  when  his  little  son  was  but  four  1 
years  old  showed  him  pictures  of  idols  and  stirred 
his  heart  with  compassion  for  the  heathen. 


154        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

fo"anr'°''  Young    Duff,     recently    graduated    from    St. 

Entrance  upon   Audrew^s,    liceused,    ordained,    married   by    Dr. 

Mission  Work  (jhalmers  to  Anne  Scott  Drysdale,  after  two  ship- 
wrecks on  the  voyage,  arrived  with  his  bride  in 
Calcutta,  May  27,  1830.  He  was  at  this  time 
twenty-four  years  of  age,  of  commanding  presence 
and  boundless  energy,  and  had  accepted  his  com- 
mission from  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Church 
of  Scotland  to  go  out  as  a  missionary  to  India 
unhampered  by  conditions.  Well  that  it  was  so, 
for  the  one  point  of  instruction  which  he  had 
received,  not  to  found  in  Calcutta  the  institution 
which  the  Society  was  to  establish  under  his  care, 
had  to  be  disregarded.  The  judgment  of  Dr. 
Carey,  whose  blessing  he  r  ceived  at  Serampur, 
coincided  with  his  own,  and  at  Calcutta  the  plan 
of  a  Christian  mission  college  which  should  do  its 
work  with  the  English  language  as  its  medium 
was  carried  out  with  astonishing  success.  It 
proved  to  be  one  of  the  great  revolutionizing  steps 
that  in  an  educational  way  almost  did  for  India 
what  the  public  school  system  has  accomplished 
for  North  America.  It  was  really  an  essential  fac- 
tor in  the  process  of  uniting  the  interests  of  Eng- 
land and  India,  which  caused  it  to  be  quickly 
adopted  by  the  British  government  schools  in 
India.  It  has  emancipated  the  young  men  and 
women  of  the  lower  ranks  and  castes,  and  given 
them  an  outlook  toward  advancement  and  posi- 
tion.    Yet  its  first  most  noticeable  effects  were 


Christian  Conquerors  155 

seen  in  the  large  numbers,  reaching  into  the  hun- 
dreds, of  high-caste  Hindu  young  men  who  were 
drawn  to  the  school,  and  from  whose  ranks  some 
were  soon  led  to  Christ,  such  as  Krishna  Mohun 
Bannerjea,  and  the  Rev.  Gopinath  l\undy.  The 
students  recognized  in  the  Holy  Scriptures,  which 
were  faithfully  taught  in  the  college  along  with 
other  studies,  an  uplifting  influence  such  as  their 
o^^Ti  sacred  books  did  not  possess.  "Love  your 
enemies ;  bless  them  that  curse  you.  How  beauti- 
ful !  how  divine  !  Surely  those  Scriptures  contain 
the  truth,"  exclaimed  one  of  the  students  one 
morning  during  the  Bible  hour. 

Dr.  Duff  also  wrought  marvels  by  his  eloquence  Educative 
in  awakening  the  missionary  spirit  in  the  entire  Eloquence 
English-speaking  world  of  his  day.  Such  an  edu- 
cative and  inspirational  movement  was  necessary 
in  the  middle  period  of  the  nineteenth  century  as 
a  basis  for  the  great  missionary  advances  in  its 
closing  decades.  Probably  no  other  voice  has  ever 
promoted  the  cause  of  missions  by  quickening  the 
thought  and  feeling  of  the  home  field  as  did  Dr. 
Duff.  In  periods  of  recuperation  from  sickness 
and  the  strain  of  his  work  in  India  he  and  his  wife 
were  in  Great  Britain  from  1834  to  1839  and  again 
from  1850  to  1855,  and  in  the  last-named  year  he 
visited  the  United  States  and  Canada,  everywhere 
arousing  immense  enthusiasm.  Through  his 
efforts  missionaries  w^ere  steadily  dispatched  to 
India  and  the  stream  of  contributions  to  sustain 


156        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 


The 

Evening  Glow 


Men  and 
Women 
Heralds  of 
Light 


them  and  the  schools  wonderfully  increased,  so 
that  on  the  return  of  the  unwearied  leader  and 
his  wife  to  India  the  college  at  Calcutta,  the  grow- 
ing Christian  college  of  south  India  at  Madras, 
and  other  parts  of  the  work  were  found  to  be  in 
a  most  flourishing  condition. 

Again  disabled  by  illness  in  1863,  Dr.  Duff, 
amid  a  great  company  of  sorrowing  friends,  took 
final  leave  of  the  land  for  which  he  had  labored  for 
thirty-three  years.  But  there  was  no  waning  of 
his  zeal  for  its  Christian  uplift.  Called  by  his 
Church  to  a  missionary  professorship,  he  prepared 
courses  of  lectures  which  he  gave  winter  by  winter 
in  the  colleges  of  Aberdeen,  Edinburgh,  and  Glas- 
gow, Then  there  were  the  years  from  1873 
onward  when  less  could  be  undertaken,  but  even 
in  the  last  year  the  advocacy  of  India's  cause  had 
the  right  of  way.  At  last  came  the  serene  end  of 
a  great  missionary  career,  February  12,  1878. 

Ever  Enlarging  Roll  of  Worlcers 

The  roll  of  noble  missionary  workers  in  India 
is  a  long  one.  In  earlier,  as  in  later  periods,  it 
includes  the  names  of  sons  and  daughters  of  other 
lands  than  Great  Britain  and  America.  And  of 
those  who  have  gone  forth  from  the  English- 
speaking  race  only  a  few  can  be  mentioned  of  the 
scores  who  have  completed  their  course,  not  to 
speak  of  the  hundreds  who  are  still  on  the  battle 
line. 


Christian  Conquerors  157 

Characters  replete  with  interest  are  associated  characters 
with  the  early  dawn  of  the  modern  missionary  era  °^  ^^^  Dawn 
in  India.  There  are  Joshua  Marshman  and  Wil- 
liam Ward,  Carey's  devoted  and  deeply  learned 
companions  at  Serampur,  who  went  out  in  1799; 
Eeginald  Heber,  the  saintly  bishop  of  Calcutta, 
who  tirst  having  composed  the  matchless  mission- 
ary hymn. 

From  Greenland's  icy  mountains, 
From  India's  coral  strand, 

went  to  India  in  1823  and  poured  out  his  life  in 

Vvdlling  service  to  her  people ;  chaplains  of  the  East 

India  Company  to  be  named  along  with  Henry 

Mart}Ti,  such  as  David  Brown,  Claudius  Buchanan, 

Daniel  Corrie,  and  Thomas   Thomason;  Eingie- 

taube  the  eccentric  but  effective  pioneer  in  Madras 

and  Tinnevelli;  Samuel  Newell,  among  the  first 

to  go  to  the  foreign  field  under  the  inspiration  of  i 

the   Williams   College  movement;   and  his  wife,  \ 

Harriet  Newell,  whose  early  death  and  burial  on  1 

the  Isle  of  France  left  her  grave  a  waymark  point-  ; 

ing  toward  India's  conquest. 

In  the  decades  from  1820  to  1850,  John  Wilson,   Three  Forma-     ; 
Robert  Nesbit,  and  J.  Murray  Mitchell,  almost  the  *^^'  ^"^^"      \ 
first  of  Scotland's  gifted  sons  offering  themselves 
for  India,  strongly  advanced  the  lines  of  educa-  [ 

tional  and  literary  work  begun  by  Carey ;  Gordon  \ 

Hall  of  the  American  Board  left  a  record  in  Bom-  j 

bay  and  western  India  for  self -forgetting  service  ! 


158        The  Christiaii  Conquest  of  India 

that  reminds  one  of  Brainerd  and  Martyn ;  Hough 
and  Pettitt  won  victories  in  the  field  of  Tinnevelli ; 
while  Bailey  and  others  in  Travancore  and  Cochin, 


Gordon  Hall  1812-1826 
John  Wilson    1829—1875 
IJ.  Murray  Mitchell,  Robert  Nesbit  1827— 
iBombay    OAhmadnagar 
Ig  '     Samuel  B  Fairbank  1846-1893 

Narayan  Sheshadrl 
®Poona 
Pand  ita  Ramabal 

HAIDARABAD 

Ongole^^j_ymanjewett 

Samuels  Day    1  Nellore 

l840-i853®|J0hnE.CIou^h  1865- 

FrancisA.Dou|lassljQhnAndersonl857-55 

.nhr,c.    L?    T^i  ,t?^  \Hot>ertJohnston  183^51 

Ban&aloreO  Y.  M.C.  A.^i'^f'^J^  ^     ^,„^„ 
David  Mcconaughy /John  Murdoch  1858- 
OMysore    1889  /W.T.Satthianadhan 

\o^  .    'Q36-  rrranquebar 

^VCalicut    ^^^jQp^jZiegenbQlgl706-l7l9 
\\williarnTod  l835WPIut5ChaU  1706 
^^M"/^arSo"^°/Schwartz  1750-1798 
.  tiwm?v/fi  1 1  I    W.TRing,letaubeia04-J5 
COCH  I  N  V  y^amesHou^h  I8I6-I82I 

TRAVANCOReV        /         George  Pettitt 
I   BenjaminBaileylBlo-^     ^^ 

!  CKFT 


WESTEllN  AND  SOUTHERN  INDIA 


Tod  and  Hoisington  in  Madura,  and  Hodson  and 
his  fellow-workers  in  Mysore  covered  other  parts 
of  southern  India.    John  Scudder  became  the  pio- 


Christian  Conquerors                   159  ' 

neer  of  medical  missions  in  Ceylon  and  the  region  j 

of  Madras,  and  demonstrated  that  a  regimen  of  ^i 

total    abstinence    was    possible    in    the    Orient. 

George  Dana  Boardman  linked  his  name  imperish- 

ably  with  the  beginnings  of  the  marvelous  move-  | 

ment  among  the  Karens  of  Burma.    Not  on  ship-  ' 

board,  but  back  into   the  forest  paths  he   com-  ; 

manded  the  bearers  of  the  litter  to  carry  him,  that 

with  his  expiring  breath  he  might  welcome  into  : 

the  fellowship  of  the  Church  of  Christ  the  first-  , 

fruits  of  his  work  among  these  "wild  men'^^  of  the  j 

jungles. 

Finally   came   the  wonderful   half  century   of   Kaif  century 
achievement  from  1850  to  1900.    Scarcely  was  the   °^  Expansion       ; 
Mutiny  over  before  Dr.  William  Butler  was  able 

to  lay  the  foundations  in  the  Ganges  valley  of  the  ' 

work  of  an  American  society''  that  has  since  spread  1 

to  nearly  all  parts  of  the  Indian  empire;  Ander-  ! 

son  and  Johnston  at  Madras  grandly  carried  out  \ 

the  educational  idea  of  Duff  for  southern  India;  I 

Murdoch  developed  the  field  of  Christian  litera-  . 

ture;   Samuel   B.    Fairbank   wrought  powerfully  ; 

among  the  Marathas  in  the  west ;  John  E.  Clough  I 

gained  thousands  among  the  Telugus  in  the  east  < 
from  the  long  planting  of  Day,   Douglass,   and 
Jewett;   William   Taylor   started  an  evangelistic 

wave  in  the  great  cities  like  Calcutta,  Bombay,  ■: 

Poona,  and  Madras,  that  has  scarcely  ceased  yet  to  ^ 

^The  name  "Karens"  means  literally  "wild  men."  ' 

'That  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  i 


IGO 


Tlie  Christian  Conquest  of  India 


Women's  Era 


roll  over  the  land ;  and  Samuel  H.  Kellogg  by  his 
scholarship  and  power  as  a  linguist  and  Christian 
thinker  left  an  indelible  impress  upon  the  field  of 
north  India. 


'  866-^9  oV_oBatala/ 
ChafrloUeMariaTucker('A.L.O.E'.'lr^''f  f<?/'/^ff'"'f3n'n6 
1875-1893  -^^AUdy  of  England) 


^  ^  "..^.^:.x. 


Ajmere 


Ahmanabad 
O 
6U  J  A  R  A  T 

Yf  Baroda 


I  s a  be ll^^hobiiTn (^\jS^^  o?^^"^ ' 


CavNnF 
Samuel  H  Kellogg' 


4Qoo^i^,;'yn 


\^'^^^h 


0V^^Sa\.O^ 


^^t^ 


^v/T^^T^^l^ 


C  ENTRAL 
PROVINCES 


CHTT^ 


NORTHERN  INDIA 

This    is   also   the   half   century   during  which 
women's   organizations  to  reach  their  "shut-in" 


Christian  Conquerors  161 

sisters  throughout  the  non-Christian  lands  sprang 
into  being.  The  143,000,000  women  of  India,  the 
most  inaccessible  to  previous  missionary  eifort  of 
any  such  numbers  the  world  over,  began  to  be 
pointed  to  the  healing  and  compassionate  Christ 
by  such  workers  as  Mrs.  H.  C.  Mullens,  Mrs. 
Murilla  B.  Ingalls,  Charlotte  Maria  Tucker,  and 
Isabella  Thoburn.  N'owhere  have  richer  types  of 
devoted  womanly  lives  made  beautiful  the  path- 
ways of  the  heavenly  evangel. 

Such  are  some  of  the  men  and  women  who  Christ  to 
through  the  first  century  of  immeasurable  toil  and  p°^^^s^  ^""^'^ 
sacrifice  have  gone  forth  among  India's  millions. 
Xot  one  has  doubted  that  his  or  hers  was  a  work 
of  conquest.  Christ  is  to  possess  India.  For  this 
like  Carey  the  missionaries  have  attempted  great 
things.  For  this  with  Martyn  they  have  been 
ready  to  "burn  out  for  God."  For  this  with  Jud- 
son  they  have  seen  the  divine  promises  aglow  with 
light.  For  this  with  Duff  they  have  sought  to 
arouse  countries  and  continents.  Perhaps  to  the 
vision  of  many  the  Christian  conquest  of  India  is 
scarcely  begun ;  but  to  those  who  can  rightly  esti- 
mate the  barriers  that  have  yielded,  the  transfor- 
mations that  have  occurred,  the  army  of  workers 
foreign  and  native  upon  the  field,  the  converts 
and  communities  massing  about  the  cross,  there 
comes  the  unquestioning  assurance  that  a  new  and 
redeemed  India  is  soon  to  reward  the  irresistible 
efforts  of  its  missionary  conquerors. 


162        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

QUESTIONS  FOR  CHAPTER  V 

Aim:    To   Determine  the  Elements  of  Missionary 

Character  that  Have  Contributed  Most 

to  the  Conquest  of  India 

I. .  .Methods  that  Failed. 

I.  How  do  you  account  for  the  lack  of  vitality  and 

influence  of  the  Nestorian  Church  in  India? 
2.*  Should  you  vote  for  a  law  that  would  require 
all  the  people  of  India  to  become  Christians? 

3.  Why  do  you  think  that  Xavier's  earlier  methods 

failed  in  large  results? 

4.  Do  you  think  that  his  later  plan  would  have 

succeeded  even  if  the  "kings"  had  responded  to 
his  appeal?     Give  reasons  for  your  views. 

5.  Why  were  they  such  a  failure? 

6.*  What  is  the  proper  attitude  for  a  government 
to  maintain  toward   missionary  work? 

11. .  .Methods  that  Yielded  Results. 

7.  Name  several  valuable  precedents  laid  down  by 

the  Danish  missionaries  and  tell  why  you  con- 
sider them  so  valuable. 

8.  Do  you  not  think  that  so  gifted  a  man  as  was 

Schwartz  was  more  needed  at  home? 

9.  What   one    element   in    his    character    seems   to 

you  most  important  for  a  missionary? 
10.*  What  does   Carey's   example  teach  as  to  the 
qualities  that  are  necessary  and  that  are  un- 
necessary to  secure  success? 

II.  What  is  the  relation  of  "expecting"  to  "attempt- 

ing" in  Carey's  motto? 


Christian  Conquerors  163 

12.  What  lesson  has  this  motto  for  ycru  as  to  your 

work  just  now? 

13.  What  do  you  think  of  his  wisdom  in  accepting 

secular  positions  under  the  circumstances? 

14.  Was  it  wise  for  him  to  devote  himself  so 
largely  to  the  study  of  languages? 

15.*  What  do  you  consider  his  five  greatest  achieve- 
ments in  the  order  of  importance? 

16.  What  does  his  life  mean  to  you? 

17.  What  are  the  principal  lessons  from  the  life  of 

Marty  n? 

15.  What  was  the  most  useful  thing  that  he  did? 

19.  Which  of  the  elements  of  Judson's  character 
seem  to  you  most  useful  for  a  pioneer  mis- 
sionary? 

20.  What  other  desirable  characteristics  for  such 
work  can  you  mention? 

21.  To  what  purpose  were  his  great  sufferings? 

22.  What  were  his  three  greatest  achievements? 

23.  What  lessons  has  the  life  of  Simeon  for  home 
workers? 

24.  What  does  Duff's  case  indicate  as  to  the  need 

of  missionary  work  for  children? 
25.*  Why  w^as  Duff's  work  in  Calcutta  of  such  far- 
reaching  importance? 

26.  What  reasons  can  you  'suggest  for  his  great 
success? 

27.  How  did  his  work  at  home  compare  in  value 
with  his  work  on  the  field? 

28.*  Would  Christianity  at  home  have  been  richer 
or  poorer  if  these  men  had  not  gone  to  the 
field? 

29.*  What,  in  the  lives  of  all  these  men,  seems  to 
you  to  have  been  the  relative  importance  of 
earnest  spirit  and  sound  method?  Defend 
your  views. 


164        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 
RefepvENCes  foe  Advanced  Study. — Chapter  V 

I... William  Carey. 

Creegan:  Great  Missionaries  of  the  Church,  IV. 
Holcomb:  Men  of  Might  in  India  Missions,  III. 
Thoburn:    India  and  Malaysia,  XV. 

11. .  .Alexander  Duff. 

Creegan:  Pioneer  Missionaries  of  the  Church,  IX. 
Holcomb:   Men  of  Might  in  India  Missions,  IX. 

111. .  .Adoniram  Judson. 

Creegan:    Great  Missionaries  of  the  Church,  XV. 
Hadyn:    American  Heroes  on  Mission  Fields,  317- 

336. 
Judson:  Adoniram  Judson,  II,  XIII. 

IV Missionary  Call. 

Carus- Wilson:    Irene  Petrie,  III. 

Judson:  Adoniram  Judson,  II. 

Page:  Henry  Martyn,  His  Life  and  Labors,  II. 

Thoburn:    My  Missionary  Apprenticeship,   I. 

Waterbury:  The  Reverend  John  Scudder,  II. 


MISSIONARY  AGENCIES 


CHAPTER  YI 

MISSIONARY  AGENCIES 

The  missionary  ideal  is  simple  enough,  and 
young  people  going  abroad  to  engage  in  missionary 
work  may  easily  be  excused  if  they  suppose  that 
their  task  will  be  an  easy  one,  so  far  as  the  actual 
work  is  concerned.  Hardships  may  be  anticipated, 
and  isolation  from  home  and  congenial  associa- 
tions may  appear  inevitable,  but  the  every-day 
duties  which  await  them  may  seem  as  light  as 
those  of  teachers  in  primary  schools  or  preachers 
in  remote  country  churches  in  the  homeland.  "  The 
actual  situation,  however,  is  very  different.  The 
missionary  is  confronted  by  a  great  variety  of 
tasks,  and  as  his  work  develops  his  responsibilities 
increase  and  new  work  in  many  forms  seems  to 
thrust  itself  upon  him,  until  at  times  he  begins 
to  fear  lest  it  overwhelm  him.  His  converts  re- 
quire tender  care;  the  children  must  be  taught; 
means  of  grace  must  be  provided ;  the  people  must 
learn  to  read;  and  reading  matter  of  some  kind 
must  be  created  for  them.  New  life  creates  new 
wants  and  new  desires,  and  the  new  world  into 
which  the  people  are  entering  soon  proves  to  be 
a  world  of  unexpected  activity,  and  one  which 
challenges  all  his  resources,  physical,  mental,  and 

167 


Work 


168        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

spiritual.  His  duties  are  multiform  and  it  would 
be  impossible  to  classify  them  accurately,  but  a 
few  broad  divisions  may  serve  to  indicate  some  of 
the  leading  departments  of  the  general  work.. 

Evangelistic 

Fundamental       Tliis  is  the  oldcst  and  most  fundamental  mis- 
Activjty  sionary  activity  and  must  permeate  all  other  forms 

of  work.  When  the  missionary  is  preaching  the 
message  of  love  he  feels  that  he  is  following  most 
closely  in  the  footsteps  of  his  Master.  While  there 
is  a  joy  and  exhilaration  that  comes  from  engag- 
ing in  this  work,  yet  it  is  fraught  with  great  diffi- 
culties, because  it  is  not  an  easy  task  to  preach 
the  gospel  with  power. 
New  style  of  Somc  missiouarics  in  India  have  adopted  a  new 
Preaching  ^^^^^q  of  preaching,  and  have  been  followed  so 
closely  by  converts  that  the  new  method  may 
become  permanent.  In  the  Oriental  world  a  pub- 
lic speaker  or  teacher  does  not  ordinarily  rise  to 
his  feet.  When  our  Saviour  delivered  his  great 
Sermon  on  the  Mount  he  was  seated  on  the  grass. 
W^hen  he  preached  on  the  seashore  he  was  seated 
in  a  boat,  and  so  in  the  synagogue,  when  about  to 
begin  a  discourse,  he  sat  down.  The  Oriental  usage 
»has  much  to  commend  it,  especially  when  the  au- 
dience is  small.  For  the  present,  however,  it  seems 
probable  that  the  Indian  preachers  will  adopt  the 
European  usage,  and  with  it  the  declamatory  style 


Missionary  Agencies  169 

which  is  foreign  to  the  traditions  and  instincts  of 
the  Orient. 

In  a  warm  climate  indoor  services  are  not  popu-  indoor 
lar  unless  the  weather  is  unfavorable.  Chapels,  ^'^'^^ 
halls,  and  school  buildings  are  used  for  these  gath- 
erings. It  is  always  much  easier  to  assemble  an 
audience  in  the  evening,  with  the  attraction  of 
good  singing  and  bright  lights,  and  the  mission 
hall  service  has  the  advantage  over  the  street 
meeting  in  that  people  are  more  apt  to  remain 
w^here  they  can  sit  on  mats. 

In  the  absence  of  churches  and  buildings  of  any  Bazaar 
kind  the  missionary  goes  as  his  Master  did,  long  ^^'^  ^®^* 
ago,  directly  to  the  joeople.  The  most  common 
place  is  the  bazaar  or  business  street  where  an 
audience  can  always  be  found.  The  melas  or  re- 
ligious festivals  attract  thousands,  and  to  these 
multitudes  the  missionary  usually  goes  with  his 
native  assistants.  Both  of  these  avenues  of  ap- 
proach furnish  opportunities  to  the  Christian 
worker  who  seeks  to  sow  seed  that  will  bear  fruit- 
age later.  As  a  rule  the  speaker  must  expect 
frequent  interruptions.  Questions  are  interjected, 
the  crowds  jostle  and  are  noisy,  objections  are 
openly  offered,  and  every  effort  is  sometimes  made 
to  break  up  the  meeting.  Under  these  conditions 
it  requires  infinite  patience,  wisdom,  tact,  ready 
wit,  and  a  strong  personality  to  hold  a  crowd  in 
check. 


170        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 


Village  ^^g  j-^jjig^y  pep  cent,  of  the  people  live  in  villages, 

an  important  part  of  the  work  is  that  of  traveling 
in  bands  of  two  or  more  from  village  to  village 
during  the  dry  season.  It  is  customary  to  pitch 
a  tent  in  a  village  a  day  or  two  and  then  pass  on, 
or  else  to  locate  in  a  village  for  a  period  and  make 
journeys  to  neighboring  villages.  In  some  cases, 
as  part  of  this  effort,  systematic  house  to  house 
visitation  has  been  inaugurated.  For  this  work 
experience  has  taught  that  it  is  much  better  to 
employ  the  native  evangelists,  as  they  have  more 
easy  access  to  the  homes.  Evangelistic  bands  from 
theological  seminaries  under  the  leadership  of  pro- 
fessors have  been  very  successful  in  reaching  thou- 
sands in  their  itineraries, 
stereopticon  In  Tcccnt  years  the  magic  lantern  has  been  used 
with  extraordinary  effect  in  preaching  after  dark 
in  the  open  air.  As  a  rule  a  sheet  is  hung  between 
two  trees,  and  the  people  gather  in  crowds  to  lis- 
ten to  the  Sahih.  The  stereopticon  views  have 
the  advantage  of  attracting  the  eye,  thus  quieting 
the  crowd  and  permitting  the  speaker  to  make 
himself  heard.  The  people  seldom  interrupt  the 
preacher,  and  sometimes  remain  for  hours  listen- 
ing to  a  connected  story. 
Native  Pastors  The  missionary's  work  as  a  preacher  is  at  best 
limited,  and  can  only  be  regarded  as  introductory 
to  the  greater  work  of  the  multitude  of  native 
preachers  who  will  be  raised  up  as  time  passes  and 
the  work  advances.     The  trainino^  of  these  native 


Missionary  Agencies  171 

agents  is  of  paramount  importance,  and  it  is  an 
encouraging  sign  of  the  times  that  in  some  of  the 
most  fruitful  missionary  fields  in  India  native 
preachers  are  coming  to  the  front  in  increasing 
numbers,  and  that  the  average  mental  and  spirit- 
ual tone  of  these  men  is  steadily  rising.  As  might 
be  expected,  a  majority  of  these  workers  are  men 
of  limited  culture,  but  they  are  so  far  in  advance 
of  the  average  of  those  to  whom  they  minister 
that  they  are  able  to  render  important  service  to 
the  growing  Christian  communities  of  the  empire. 
A  new  agency  has  been  introduced  into  India 
in  women^s  work,  and  in  recent  years  a  large  and 
increasing  force  of  efficient  ladies  have  taken  up 
the  work  of  visiting  the  women  in  their  homes  and 
telling  them  of  Christ  and  his  salvation.  This 
work  is  closely  related  to  the  evangelistic  work, 
and  is  reaching  thousands ;  but  it  should  be  under- 
stood that  after  all,  perhaps  not  more  than  one 
tenth  of  the  women  are  inaccessible  to  the  preach- 
ing of  men.  The  women  of  India  are  more  conser- 
vative in  character  than  their  husbands,  and  are 
more  attached  to  the  customs  and  superstitions  of 
their  religion.  They  really  govern  the  religious 
life  of  their  households.  Lady  missionaries  can 
usually  obtain  entrance  to  a  home  by  offering 
inducements  of  teaching  fancy  work  or  of  instruc- 
tion in  reading.  Native  Bible  women  are  being 
used  more  widely  and  are  a  mighty  force  in  dis- 
seminating   Scriptural    knowledge    among   their 


■Women' 
Work 


172        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

sisters.  "In  the  town  of  Madura  alone  thirty-one 
Bible  women  have  access  to  1,000  non-Christian 
homes  where  Bible  instruction  is  gladly  received."^ 
Teiugu  One  of  the  most  successful  missions  is  that  among 
ission  ^j^g  Telugus.  (This  work  is  unusually  encourag- 
ing because  they  are  a  people  strongly  inclined 
toward  Hinduism.  They  are  located  largely  in 
the  Madras  Presidency  and  the  Deccan.  Dr.  Day 
reached  N'ellore  in  1840,  one  hundred  and  eight 
miles  north  of  Madras.  His  method  of  work  was 
preeminently  evangelistic,  preaching  the  gospel  in 
season  and  out  of  season,  on  the  streets  and  in  the 
surrounding  country.  During  the  first  twenty-five 
years  the  results  were  meager  and  the  work  was 
almost  wrecked  by  the  failure  of  the  health  of  the 
missionaries.  It  was  only  their  intense  faith  that 
prevented  the  abandonment  of  the  field.  A  mem- 
orable date  in  the  history  of  the  mission  is  Janu- 
ary 1,  1854,  when  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Jewett  with  three 
native  workers  met  near  Ongole  to  pray  for  a  mis- 
sionary. The  answer  came  ten  years  later  in  Mr. 
and  Mrs.  John  E.  Clough.  Not  long  after  their 
arrival  there  was  an  awakening  which  increased 
in  magnitude  for  a  number  of  years,  reaching  its 
height  in  1878,  when  9,606  were  added,  2,222  of 
whom  were  baptized  in  a  single  day.  The  latest 
statistics  report  54,649  communicants,  1,470 
native  workers,  and  129  organized  native  churches 
connected  with  29  stations.  Two  striking  features 
*  Jones,  India's  Problem:  Krishna  or  Christ,  257. 


Nagercoil  Church,  Self-supporting  and  Self-governing 


Vinton  Memorial  Church 
Erected  by  Natives  at  Rangoon,  Burma,  at  a  cost  of  $30,000 


Missionary  Agencies 


173 


in  connection  with  this  mission  are  the  organiza- 
tion of  a  native  missionary  society  in  1891,  and 
the  sending  of  one  of  their  strongest  evangelists 
to  the  Telugus  who  have  emigrated  to  ISTatal, 
South  Africa. 

Educational 


Our  Saviour's  commission  to  his  disciples  linked  The  saviour's 
preaching  and  teaching  together  as  twin  agencies  commission 
in  the  evangelization  of  the  world,  but  the  teach- 
ing enjoined  upon  them  no  doubt  was  intended  to 
refer  chiefly  to  spiritual  instruction.  The  great 
truths  were  to  be  proclaimed  abroad,  while  the 
details  were  to  be  expounded  more  privately  by 
well-grounded  and  capable  teachers.  In  the  main 
the  same  procedure  should  be  followed  now,  and 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent  it  is  followed  wherever 
spiritual  Christianity  is  making  headway  against 
the  world. 

In  India,  however,  the  word  teaching  must 
include  more  than  spiritual  instruction.  The  con- 
verts have  no  Bible  and  no  religious  books. 
Indeed,  with  very  rare  exceptions,  they  have  no 
books  at  all.  They  must  be  taught,  and  the  work 
must  be  taken  in  hand  at  once.  But  nearly  all 
of  the  converts  are  so  poor  that  they  can  do  noth- 
ing whatever  in  the  way  of  self-help.  They  cannot 
buy  a  book,  no  matter  how  cheap,  and  in  most 
cases  it  is  as  much  as  can  be  hoped  for  if  the 


Necessity  of 
Instruction 


Educational 
Movement 


174        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

parents  can  afford  to  let  their  children  attend 
school  for  an  hour  or  two  daily.  It  is  a  striking 
sight — sometimes  amusing  and  sometimes  touch- 
ing— to  see  boys  gathered  under  a  tree,  and  mak- 
ing letters  and  figures  in  the  sand,  instead  of 
writing  them  on  a  slate  or  in  a  copybook.  Thou- 
sands of  poor  people,  not  all  children  by  any 
means,  are  to-day  struggling  to  acquire  the  barest 
rudiments  of  an  education  by  methods  so  pitifully 
primitive  that  they  sometimes  provoke  us  to  mirth, 
when  they  ought  to  move  us  to  tears. 
Modern  But  all  tlic  educatioual  work  of  the  Indian  mis- 

sionary is  by  no  means  of  this  primitive  character. 
At  an  early  day  it  was  perceived  that  modern  edu- 
cation might  be  utilized  so  as  to  be  made  a  most 
useful  missionary  agency.  Dr.  Carey,  the  great 
founder  of  the  modern  missionary  enterprise,  did 
not  fail  to  realize  the  importance  of  education 
as  a  missionary  agency,  and  at  a  later  day  Dr.  Duff 
introduced  the  modern  educational  movement  into 
India,  which  resulted  in  the  adoption  of  his  plan 
by  the  British  Government,  with  the  religious 
phase  omitted.  Aside  from  religious  interests 
altogether  the  missionary  enterprise  has  thus 
proved  to  be  a  source  of  untold  blessing  to  the 
Indian  empire,  and  as  time  passes  it  will  become 
more  and  more  evident  to  the  world  that  in  seek- 
ing to  lead  the  people  of  India  to  a  knowledge  of 
Christ,  the  missionaries  really  made  possible  the 
intellectual  enlightenment  of  a  great  empire.    For 


Missionary  Agencies 


175 


Progress  of 
Education 


more  than  a  century  missionaries  have  patiently 
followed  in  the  path  at  first  marked  out,  and  at 
the  present  day  nearly  every  society  operating  in 
India  uses  education  as  a  means  of  influencing  the 
non-Christian  community,  or  of  strengthening 
and  developing  the  growing  host  of  those  who  have 
accepted  the  Christian  faith. 

The  government  of  India  has  taken  up  the  stu- 
pendous task  of  educating  the  people  of  India,  but 
the  work  is  beset  with  difficulties  of  many  kinds, 
and  it  will  be  many  years  before  even  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  people  of  the  country  can  be  induced 
to  send  their  children  to  school.  From  one  point 
of  view  the  situation  is  unsatisfactory  and  the  out- 
look discouraging,  but  when  the  present  is  com- 
pared with  the  not  very  distant  past,  the  situation 
appears  much  more  hopeful.  When  the  writer 
went  to  India  in  1859,  there  were  only  2,000  pub- 
lic schools  in  all  India,  and  the  total  attendance  of 
pupils  of  all  ages  was  less  than  200,000.  During 
these  years  the  number  of  schools  has  increased  to 
155,000,  and  the  number  of  pupils  has  increased 
to  nearly  5,000,000.  These  figures  certainly  indi- 
cate very  great  progress  and  ought  to  be  accepted 
as  encouraging,  even  though  we  are  reminded  of 
the  fact  that  nineteen-twentieths  of  the  people  can 
neither  read  nor  write,  and  that  less  than  five  per 
cent,  of  those  of  school  age  are  actually  in  school. 

The  most  striking  feature  of  educational  work   Educa^isa 

1  T  T       Amonf 

m  India  has  been  the  extraordmarv  progress  made   womss 


176        The  Cliristiaii  Conquest  of  India 

among  the  women.  Fifty  years  ago  the  possibility 
of  introducing  education  among  the  women  of 
India  had  barely  been  mentioned,  and  experienced 
missionaries  regarded  the  idea  as  wholly  imprac- 
ticable. Even  Dr.  Duff  had  said  that  "one  might 
as  well  try  to  scale  a  wall  fifty  miles  high."  The 
chief  trouble  was  found  in  the  invincible  notion 
current  among  men  in  India  that  women  were 
mentally  defective  and  could  not  learn,  no  matter 
how  carefully  they  were  taught.  Added  to  this 
was  an  equally  invincible  belief  that  any  attempt 
to  teach  them  would  endanger  their  morals,  and 
in  any  case  the  effect  would  be  perilous  to  the  repu- 
tation and  general  interests  of  the  family  con- 
cerned. To-day  all  fears  have  been  quieted  by  the 
more  than  half  a  million  of  girls  and  women  who 
are  enrolled  in  the  educational  institutions  of  the 
empire,  a  number  of  whom  have  vindicated  their 
scholarship  by  receiving  university  honors. 
Results  of  The  question  may  be  asked,  why  missionary 
societies  shall  continue  to  support  schools  and  col- 
leges when  the  government  is  carrying  out  such  an 
aggressive  educational  policy?  Close  touch  with 
these  secular  institutions  has  revealed  the  fact  that 
where  religious  neutrality  is  maintained  the  stu- 
dents are  simply  drifting  from  their  former  faith 
to  materialism  and  atheism.  As  a  Brahman  said 
not  long  since:  '^There  are  many  Brahmans  who 
are  baptized  in  heart.  Christian  education  is 
working  mighty  changes  in  the  character  and  life 


Secular 
Education 


Missionary  Agencies  177  i 

>, 

of  the  Hindu  commnnity.    Young  men  who  have  | 

been  educated  in  the  government  schools  come  out  ! 

atheists  and  are  unreliable  in  character.  .  .  .   The  ' 

young  men  whom  the  missionaries  educate  come  j 

from  the  schools  with  faith  in  God  and  satisfactory  i 

stability  of  character/^     Modern  education  apart  , 

from  Christianity  destroys  but  does  not  build  up 

faith.     Therefore  it  would  be  a  shortsighted  and  ; 

disastrous     policy     to     discontinue     educational  , 

missions.  ] 

There  are  some  persons  who  question  the  expen-   "vvhy  do  i 

diture  of  money  in  maintaining  educational  insti-   work?      '       j 

tutions  on  the  ground  that  they  are  not  an  evan-  j 

gelistic  agency.     In  reply  to  this  criticism,  Dr.  [ 

Jones  after  a  tested  experience  in  India  writes :  "I 

fearlessly  maintain   that   more   conversions   trke  ; 

place    and    more    accessions    are    made    through  j 

schools  than  through  any  other  agency  apart  from  j 

the  Christian  Church  itself."'     Schools  and  col-  ] 

leges   are   necessary   to   properly  train   a   native 

agency  upon  whom  must  fall  the  greater  part  of 

the  evangelization  of  the  empire,  and  the  native  ; 

Christian  community  must  have  other  educated  ] 

leaders  if  Christianity  is  to  become  a  vital  force.  . 

Then,  too,  a  higher  class   of  students  are  attracted  ■' 

to  colleges,  who  would  never  consent  to  listen  to  | 

the  gospel  on  the  street  or  enter  a  church.     Caste  1 

is  also  being  broken  down  because  in  a  number  of  i 

institutions  high  caste  students  are  being  taught  -j 

^Jones,  India's  Problem:  Krishna  or  Christ,  249.  j 

;1 


178        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

by  low  caste  instructors.  In  nearly  all  missionary 
institutions  the  daily  Bible  class  is  a  part  of  the 
regular  course,  and  if  students  are  not  converted 
while  in  attendance,  they  usually  go  forth  from 
college  into  business  or  professional  life  with  their 
former  faith  disintegrated  and  their  ideals  revolu- 
tionized by  contact  with  Christian  teaching. 
The  American  The  American  College  at  Madura  is  a  type  c 
CoEiege  Christian  institution  that  is  leavening  a  section 

in  southern  India  with  the  spirit  of  Christianity. 
Its  departments  are:  College,  Theological,  Nor- 
mal, High  and  Lower  schools,  and  Industrial.  It 
is  affiliated  with  the  Madras  University  and 
receives  an  annual  grant  from  the  government. 
The  faculty  numbers  fifty-two  and  there  are  1,030 
in  attendance  from  thirty-five  castes.  Two  fifths 
are  Hindus  and  about  one  half  of  these  are 
Brahmans,  while  the  remainder  are  Mohamme- 
dans and  aborigines.  The  majority  who  have  gone 
out  from  the  college  are  Christians,  and  the  re- 
mainder were  permeated  with  the  spirit  of  Christ. 
As  a  further  result  of  the  work  of  this  college,  232 
have  entered  distinctively  Christian  work,  600  are 
teachers,  a  large  number  are  in  the  government 
service,  others  are  editors,  lawyers,  and  some  have 
gone  into  agriculture  and  other  industries.  They 
are  scattered  in  northern  and  southern  India  and 
in  Burma  and  Ceylon,  and  are  taking  an  active 
part  in  rightly  shaping  the  destiny  of  the  empire. 


College  Hall  of  Madura  Mission 


III  II  If  11 

1         ,        .       fl-.^^     ..-.•      4.    :l!!,\  i'd  nV»l  iliil  I  till  UJII 


iiiw      'A* 


Forman  Christian  College,  Lahore 
Opening  of  Newton  Hall,  February  5,  1903 


Missionary  Agencies  179 

Litetary 

If  the  people  of  India  are  ever  to  become  an  importance  of 
intelligent  and  educated  people,  provision  must  be  press""*^^^' 
made'  for  supplying  them  with  devotional  books 
and  text-books  suited  to  their  stage  of  progress 
and  full  of  the  inspiration  which  the  myriads  of 
the  great  Eastern  world  need  at  this  momentous 
era  of  the  world^s  progress.  Dr.  Carey  appreciated 
the  power  of  the  press,  and  with  characteristic 
foresight  became  the  pioneer  printer  of  all  India. 
His  printing-press  at  Serampur  was  the  first  one 
established  in  India,  and  although  it  has  long 
since  ceased  to  exist  as  the  Serampore  press,  it  is 
practically  represented  by  the  Baptist  Mission 
Press  of  Calcutta,  an  institution  which  has  had  a 
long  period  of  usefulness.  Fifty-three  publishing 
houses,  some  older  and  others  of  recent  origin, 
have  been  established  at  important  centers  of  popu- 
lation and  influence,  and  are  printing  one  hundred 
and  forty-seven  newspapers  and  magazines  for  the 
Christian  people,  besides  thousands  of  leaflets, 
books,  and  other  literature. 

For  some  reason  missionary  societies  on  both  ^ack  of 
sides  of  the  Atlantic  have  failed  thus  far  to  appre- 
ciate the  power  of  the  printing-press.  This  is  the 
more  unfortunate  so  far  as  India  is  concerned, 
because  the  educated  leaders  of  the  Indian  commu- 
nity have  been  quick  to  avail  themselves  of  the 
power  which  it  puts  in  their  hands,  and  often  it 


Appreciation 


180        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 


Bible  and 
Tract  Societies 


Value  of 
Literature 


Influence 
of  a  Gospel 


happens  that  the  streets  are  placarded  with  notices 

of  books  and  pamphlets  which  are  hostile  to  Chris- 
tianity, while  hardly  a  line  in  defense  of  the  truth 
can  be  obtained.  The  speeches  of  Ingersoll  and 
Bradlaugh  with  others  of  like  kind  have  been  scat- 
tered far  and  wide  throughout  the  Eastern  world. 
The  propagation  of  theosophy  was  chiefly  effected 
through  the  press,  and  the  exposure  and  overthrow 
of  the  imposture  may  be  credited  to  the  same 
agency.  Any  year  or  any  day  new  issues  may  arise 
— indeed  new  issues  are  sure  to  arise — and  for 
these  the  defenders  of  the  truth  and  the  guides 
of  the  Church  of  the  future  should  always  be 
prepared. 

The  Bible  Society,  Tract  Societ}^,  and  Christian 
Literature  Society  are  valuable  auxiliaries  in  the 
distribution  of  good  literature  among  the  people. 
These  organizations  have  expended  large  sums  of 
money  in  the  translation,  revision,  and  circulation 
of  the  Scriptures.  They  have  also  furnished  many 
exceedingly  useful  tracts,  illustrating  and  defend- 
ing the  Christian  religion. 

The  influence  of  the  printed  page  is  invaluable 
in  the  present  propaganda  both  among  Christians 
and  non-Christians,  and  probably  no  phase  of 
activity  encourages  larger  hopes  than  the  distribu- 
tion of  wholesome  literature  among  India's  people. 

The  following  shows  the  effective  power  of 
Christian  literature:  "It  is  said  that  one  of  the 
vernacular  versions  of  the  Gospels  accidentally  fell 


Missionary  Agencies  181 

into  the  hands  of  a  Mohammedan  Moulvi,  or 
teacher,  in  North  India.  It  had  been  prepared 
and  published  by  the  Bible  Society.  The  Mussul- 
man read  the  book  with  eagerness,  chiefly  with  a 
view  to  find  new  arguments  against  the  divinity  of 
our  Lord  and  the  heavenly  source  of  our  faith. 
But  as  he  read,  he  was  so  impressed  with  the  won- 
derful narrative  and  the  unique  beauty  of  the 
character  of  our  Lord,  that  he  surrendered  himself 
to  him  as  his  Saviour  and  found  in  him  peace  and 
rest.  Somewhat  later  he  met  a  Hindu  fakir, 
named  Chet  Ram,  who  was  earnestly  in  search  of 
the  truth.  The  Mohammedan  convert  joyfully 
told  him  of  his  newly  found  Saviour  and  gave  liim 
his  copy  of  the  New  Testament  that  he  might  find 
for  himself  the  same  blessing.  The  Holy  Spirit 
carried  the  gospel  message  of  life  into  his  heart 
also,  and  he  accepted  Christ  and  at  once  began  to 
preach  him  to  his  friends  and  neighbors.  This 
work  he  performed  faithfully;  and  he  gathered 
around  himself  many  who  accepted  this  short 
creed :  'I  believe  in  Jesus  Christ  the  Son  of  Mary, 
and  in  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  in  the  Father  to  whom 
prayer  should  be  made,  and  in  the  Bible  through 
which  salvation  is  to  be  received.^  Chet  Eam  died 
some  time  ago;  but  there  are  to-day  found  scat- 
tered through  the  villages  of  North  India  thou- 
sands of  his  followers  who  subscribed  to  his  brief 
creed  and  who  always  carry  upon  their  persons  a 
copy  of  the  Scriptures.     So  far  as  I  know,  these 


182        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

people  have  never  come  into  contact  with  Chris- 
tian workers,  but  have  been  led  simply  through  a 
study  of  God's  Word,  under  the  guidance  of  God's 
Spirit,  unto  Christ  the  Saviour  of  the  world."  ^ 

Medical  Work 

.Demands  for  Almost  all  missiouarics,  no  matter  in  what  part 
iMedicai  Aid  ^£  ^j^^  world  their  lot  may  be  cast  or  whether  they 
have  any  medical  knowledge  or  not,  will  at  times 
be  almost  compelled  to  distribute  medicine  among 
the  sick,  and  to  act  the  part  of  the  Good  Samari- 
tan in  various  ways.  Go  where  he  may  the  average 
missionary  will  find  human  suffering  and  human 
helplessness,  and  he  will  certainly  have  ever-recur- 
ring appeals  made  to  him  for  medical  help.  If  he 
responds  to  these  appeals,  as  he  almost  certainly 
will,  he  may  sometimes  be  repaid  with  ingratitude, 
but  it  is  much  more  probable  that  his  kindness  will 
win  favor  for  him  and  prove  of  service  in  his 
missionary  work.  Observing  this  result,  many 
missionaries  naturally  have  become  impressed 
with  the  idea  of  establishing  medical  missions, 
involving  the  sending  out  of  medical  men  and 
women  who  are  to  use  their  medical  skill  as  a 
means  of  helping  multitudes  of  helpless  people, 
and  at  the  same  time  making  Christ  known  to 
them,  under  circumstances  which  are  naturally 
calculated  to  impress  them  favorably.  This  idea 
^Jones,  India's  ProMem:  Krishna  or  Christ,  334. 


Missionary  Agencies 


183 


has  met  with  much  favor,  and  medical  missiona- 
ries, men  and  women,  are  now  in  many  parts  of 
India.  ^ 

Medical  missions  have  added  mnch  to  the  gen-  Aid  to 
eral  reputation  of  the  missionaries  among  the  **^^"°°» 
people,  and  have  helped  the  missionary  to  emulate 
his  Master  in  relieving  a  large  amount  of  physical 
suffering.  They  have  given  Christianity  a  better 
standing  among  the  people  by  disarming  preju- 
dices and  removing  hostilit}^  They  have  also  been 
the  means  of  breaking  down  caste  and  bringing 
many  people  within  direct  hearing  of  the  gospeL 
Through  the  women  workers  they  have  brought 
relief  to  the  inmates  of  Oriental  zenanas,  a  class 
for  whom  no  proper  medical  help  had  ever  been 
provided  before  the  advent  of  the  missionaries. 
In  their  good  work  the  medical  missionaries  have 
been  encouraged  and  in  some  cases  assisted  by  the 
government  officials,  and  in  the  more  remote  dis- 
tricts help  would  be  materially  increased  if  the 
missionary  societies  could  be  depended  on  to  fill 
vacancies  as  they  occur  and  to  carry  on  the  good 
work  without  interruption. 

In  all  the  records  of  missionary  history  no  story  women 
has  been  more  remarkable  than  that  which  tells   P^y''^*^^"" 
of  the   sending  of  medical  lady  missionaries  to 
India.     Previous  to  1870'  there  was  not  a  single 

^Clara  A.  Swain,  M.D.,  was  sent  to  India  by  the 
Women's  Foreign  Missionary  Society  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  in  1869,  arriving  in  Bareilly,  Jan. 

20,  1870. 


184        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

medical  lady  in  all  the  non-Christian  world,  and 
when  it  was  proposed  to  send  medical  women  as 
missionaries  to  India,  many  influential  parties 
opposed  the  movement,  and  not  a  few  denounced 
it  as  impracticable,  if  not  dangerous.  But  the 
tolerant  and  intelligent  government  of  the  day 
approved  the  experiment,  and  a  very  short  trial 
sufficed  to  demonstrate  the  unqualified  success  of 
the  experiment.  The  medical  ladies  were  received 
without  hesitation  by  all  classes  and  castes,  and 
before  many  years  had  passed,  young  ladies  were 
admitted  as  students  into  the  government  medical 
colleges  of  the  country,  and  have  now  won  recog- 
nition as  efficient  practitioners. 

iSTotwithstanding  the  excellent  efforts  made  by 
Need  for  -j-j^g  government  to  supply  medical  aid.  Dr.  Wan- 
Missions  less  writes  that  ^^there  are  still  566,000  villages 
with  a  population  of  five  hundred  or  less  and  thou- 
sands of  larger  villages  and  towns  without  a  resi- 
dent educated  physician.  Even  in  the  city  of  Cal- 
cutta, which  is  the  best  supplied  with  physicians 
of  any  in  India,  three  out  of  every  five  die  unat- 
tended by  physicians.^^^  When  one  remembers  the 
adhesion  of  the  masses  to  the  superstition  that 
sickness  is  an  expression  of  the  anger  of  the  gods 
or  goddesses,  and  realizes  that  between  seven  and 
eight  millions  die  annually,  it  is  not  difficult  to 
believe  in  the  need  of  skilled  physicians  for  the 
country. 

^The  Missionary  Review  of  the  World,  May,  1905. 


Missionary  Agencies 


185 


How  diversified  are  the  attending  benefits  may   Typical 
be  learned  from  this  scene :  "First  of  all  there   J^°'°^T  ^'  ^ 

Medical 

came  the  service,  with  the  assembled  patients  in  Mission 
the  front  of  the  veranda.  The  patients  listened  to 
the  Doctor's  address  which  lasted  about  fifteen 
minutes.  There  was  a  poor  Brahman  who  had 
come  some  fifteen  miles,  next  to  him  was  a  poor 
low-caste  man,  next  to  him  was  a  Hindu  merchant, 
over  there  was  a  Parsee  clerk  from  Bombay,  and 
next  to  him  a  man  of  the  agricultural  caste,  all 
drawn  by  the  one  need  to  hear  the  same  gospel  and 
to  receive  the  treatment  each  required.  After  the 
service  the  patients  came  in  turn  to  see  the  doctor. 
Their  ailments  were  varied,  though  eye  and  skin 
diseases  predominated.  All  displayed  gratitude 
for  the  help  given,  and  one  poor  fellow,  an  old 
man,  went  down  on  the  ground  before  Dr.  Thomas, 
almost  worshiping  him  for  what  he  had  done  for 
him.    Truly  it  is  a  blessed  work  !''^ 

The  Miraj  Medical  Mission  in  the  Bombay  Miraj  Medical 
Presidency,  although  not  the  largest  in  India,  pre-  Mission 
sents  features  that  are  typical  and  ideal.  The 
work  includes  a  hospital  with  sixty-five  beds,  a 
detached  dispensary  for  outdoor  patients,  a  medi- 
cal school  for  training  Indian  Christian  young 
men,  and  a  leper  asylum.  In  one  year,  1,313 
in-patients  were  treated  and  more  than  17,000 
received  treatment  at  the  dispensary  from  between 

^The  Missionary  Herald  of  the  Baptist  Missionary 
Society,  March,  1906. 


18G        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

six  and  seven  hundred  villages  in  five  provincial 
districts.  During  this  same  year  1,871  surgical 
operations  were  performed,  415  being  for  the 
removal  of  cataract.  In  connection  with  this  hospi- 
tal there  is  also  a  European  ward  with  a  cottage  for 
sick  missionaries.  The  medical  school  with  a  four- 
year  curriculum,  is  training  Indian  Christians  for 
the  work  of  medical  assistants.  One  of  the  last 
class  is  a  Brahman  and  is  now  the  native  physician 
in  charge  of  Pandita  Eamabai's  institution  for 
girl-widows.  The  entire  medical  staff,  foreign  and 
native,  are  Christians  and  take  turn  in  conducting 
a  twenty-minute  noonday  service  in  the  wards. 
All  who  come  to  the  mission  receive  a  Christian 
tract  and  many  buy  Gospels  and  Christian  books, 
while  to  all  the  gospel  is  preached  or  taught.  The 
students  of  the  medical  school  have  organized  a 
Young  Men's  Christian  Association,  and  are 
actively  engaged  in  missionary  work  among  their 
own  people.  This  work  through  its  deeds  of  mercy 
is  winning  the  favor  of  thousands  and  is  commend- 
ing the  Christian  religion  to  all  classes  in  a  very 
practical  way.  Said  a  prominent  Mohammedan, 
^'^It  is  these  medical  missionaries  who  are  winning 
the  hearts  and  confidence  of  our  people.  If  we  do 
not  do  as  they  do,  we  will  soon  lose  our  hold  upon 
our  own  people.  We  must  build  hospitals  and  care 
for  the  sick  and  dying  if  we  wish  to  keep  our  reli- 
gion alive.""^ 

^The  Assembly  Herald,  April,  1905. 


Industrial 
Missions 


Missionar}^  x4gencies  187 

Industrial 

Another  missionary  agency  is  attracting  atten-  Necessity  foz 
tion  at  the  present  time.  Converts  are  multiply- 
ing somewhat  rapidly,  and  most  of  them  are 
extremely  poor.  The  country  is  densely  popu- 
lated; every  avenue  of  labor  is  crowded;  wages 
are  so  low  as  to  seem  almost  nominal;  famines- 
have  filled  the  orphanages  with  boys  and  girls  who 
are  approaching  adult  years  and  the  missionaries 
are  compelled  to  consider  the  question  of  finding 
employment  for  a  constantly  increasing  number 
of  people.  How  can  they  provide  work  for  so 
many  ?  What  new  industries  can  they  introduce  ? 
Can  they  organize  industrial  schools  and  make 
them  self-supporting?  Can  the  missionary  be- 
come a  mechanic,  or  will  it  be  better  to  send  home 
for  laymen  who  will  give  their  exclusive  attention 
to  this  kind  of  work  ?  Will  it  be  possible  to  bene- 
fit the  country  and  help  the  people  in  a  general 
way,  while  still  devoting  the  chief  attention  to  the 
Christian  youths  and  the  Christian  community? 
These  and  other  questions  of  the  kind  are  pressing 
themselves  upon  the  attention  of  thoughtful  mis- 
sionaries in  many  parts  of  the  empire,  and  demand 
the  attention  of  friends  of  missions  in  all  lands. 

Of  late  years  many  attempts  have  been  made  to   Difficulties 
meet  this  demand  for  employment,  but  not  by  any 
means   with    uniform   success.      Difficulties    and 
obstacles  abound,  and  it  is  not  strange  that  many 


in  the  "Work 


for  Success 


188        The  ChriGtian  Conquest  of  Icdia 

ardent  friends  of  the  movement  become  dis- 
couraged. At  the  outset  most  of  the  converts  are 
unaccustomed  to  habits  of  steady  labor.  Adults 
do  not  at  first  take  kindly  to  work  which  is  new  to 
them.  Boys  become  foolish  and  resent  discipline. 
Imperfect  work  commands  reduced  pay.  New 
associations  are  distasteful,  and  finally,  poor 
human  nature  is  weak,  and  average  people  in  our 
world  are  very  prone  to  become  unreasonable  and 
refuse  to  cooperate  in  efforts  made  to  do  them 
good;  so  oftentimes,  in  one  way  or  another,  many 
of  these  efforts  fail. 
Requirements  But  it  should  uot  be  assumcd  that  all  such 
efforts  must  fail,  or  that  the  experiments  made  in 
the  past  have  been  sufficient  in  all  their  bearings. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  question  in  all  its  broad 
bearings  has  hardly  been  tested  at  all.  The  fail- 
ures of  the  past  have  been  valuable  for  the  lessons 
which  they  have  taught,  and  some  of  the  mistakes 
made  will  serve  a  good  purpose  to  guide  those  who 
are  to  lead  in  coming  days.  One  thing  which  is 
needed  in  such  attempts  is  capital.  Money  is  abso- 
lutely necessary.  Time  and  patience  also  are  fac- 
tors in  the  problem.  It  is  seldom  best  for  a  mis- 
sionary to  combine  all  offices  in  his  own  person. 
He  cannot  direct  everything,  and  when  his  hands 
and  heart  are  already  full,  he  should  not  dream  of 
assuming  other  tasks  sufficient  to  fill  the  heart 
and  hands  of  another  man  quite  equal  to  himself. 
Up  to  date  very  few  missionaries  in  India  have 


Missionary  Agencies  189 

been  assigned  to  the  exclusive  task  of  directing 
experiments  in  the  line  of  industrial  missions. 

It  is  impossible  to  enumerate  the  various  indus-  some 
tries  that  are  emphasized,  because  of  the  different  o^«^"pat^oa» 
conditions  that  must  be  met  by  the  missionaries. 
As  a  rule  the  girls  and  women  are  taught  cooking, 
spinning,  weaving,  laundry  work,  needle  work, 
and  embroidering,  while  the  boys  and  men  are 
instructed  in  carpentry,  shoemaking,  tailoring, 
printing,  bookbinding,  tile  and  brickmaking,  agri- 
culture, and  other  trades. 

The  Basel  Evangelical  Mission  has  probably  Basel 
accomplished  more  in  this  phase  of  activity  than 
any  other  mission  in  the  country.  They  have  suc- 
ceeded in  inventing  and  manufacturing  a  superior 
quality  of  cloth  and  tile,  that  have  found  a  ready 
market  in  India.  They  have  also  taught  carpen- 
try, tailoring,  and  bookbinding  to  good  advantage, 
and  the  Mission  has  proved  that  self-support  is 
possible  when  the  work  is  conducted  by  efficient 
Christian  men  from  Europe.  Besides  being  able 
to  provide  a  livelihood  for  a  large  number  of 
natives  at  their  stations,  the  Indians  trained  in 
their  schools  have  entered  some  of  the  trades  and 
have  made  more  than  a  living.  The  missionaries 
are  able  to  point  with  pride  to  a  number  of  their 
converts  who  own  comfortable  houses  and  have  a 
bank  account. 


Evangelical 
Mission 


190  The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 
Philanthropic  Work 
Famine  ReUef  ^g  ^  result  of  the  terrible  famines  which  occur 
frequently,  missionaries  have  found  themselves  in 
the  presence  of  large  numbers  of  orphans.  These 
Christian  workers  would  not  be  true  to  the  holy 
instincts  which  inspire  them,  if  the  spectacle  of 
these  helpless  and  often  djdng  children  did  not 
move  them  to  immediate  efforts  for  their  relief  and 
permanent  care  for  them,  as  they  find  them  in 
every  to^vn  or  village  and  along  every  public  high- 
way. To  feed  them  when  found  would  relieve  a 
present  want,  but  nothing  short  of  permanent  care 
can  save  them.  The  result  might  have  been  pre- 
dicted by  any  one  who  knows  the  meaning  of 
Christian  sympathy,  or  understands  the  imperative 
sense  of  duty  which  such  sympathy  creates.  The 
children  are  received  as  permanent  wards,  and  in 
this  way  scores  of  Christian  orphanages  have  been 
founded  and  equipped  for  a  career  of  practical 
service  in  different  parts  of  India. 
Results  of  rpj^g  gooS.  work  donc  by  these  institutions  h-as 
proved  a  threefold  blessing  to  the  country.  First, 
it  has  rescued  and  saved  thousands  of  perishing 
little  ones.  In  the  second  place,  it  has  created  a 
large  number  of  permanent  institutions  for  the 
rescue  and  training  of  orphan  and  helpless  chil- 
dren of  all  grades.  Lastly,  it  has  led  to  the  train- 
ing of  large  numbers  of  young  people  who  are  able 
to  occupy  positions  of  usefulness  among  their 
countrymen.     These  institutions  have  also  served 


Young  Men's  Christian  Association   Building,  Madras 


Isabella  Thoburn  College,  Lucknow 


Missionary  Agencies 


191 


as  models  for  boarding  and  training  schools,  in 
which  thousands  of  the  sons  and  daughters  of  the 
land  are  receiving  training  and  instruction,  while 
the  communities  in  which  the  schools  are  situated 
receive  the  benefit  of  the  light  and  better  spirit 
which  emanates  from  such  an  agency. 

Young  Men's  Christian  Association 

At  the  invitation  of  the  missionaries  of  the  invited  to 
evangelical  churches  of  Madras,  the  International 
Committee  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Associ- 
ation sent  out  Mr.  David  McConaughy  in  October, 
1889,  to  establish  the  first  Association  among  the 
young  men  of  that  city.  The  growth  of  this  work, 
while  phenomenal,  has  been  substantial,  and 
according  to  the  latest  statistics  there  are  110 
Associations  with  a  membership  of  6,957. 

Its  field  of  activity  is  among  Europeans  and  ^leWsof 
Indians.  It  owns  sixteen  buildings  valued  at  ^*^*y 
$400,000,  and  its  secretaries  are  at  work  among 
the  students,  railroad  men,  civilians  and  British 
officials,  and  in  the  army.  It  is  providing  health- 
ful social  surroundings,  clean  athletic  exercises, 
and  is  ministering  to  the  spiritual  needs  of  India's 
young  men  through  religious  meetings  and  Bible 
study  classes 

Perhaps  the  most  strategic  work  is  among  the  work  Among 
students  in  the  great  educational  centers  where  ®*"^*°*' 
agnosticism  and  vice  are  rife.    Here  the  Associa- 
tion, because  of  its  interdenominational  character 


192        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

and  its  vast  experience  among  the  students  in 
many  lands,  is  doing  a  unique  work.  Calcutta 
University  is  the  largest  student  center,  having 
more  men  registered  than  Harvard,  Yale,  Prince- 
ton, and  Toronto.  In  addition  to  the  12,000 
young  men  in  the  colleges,  there  are  30,000  pupils 
in  the  high  schools  of  Calcutta.  In  these  and 
other  student  centers,  the  Association  conducts 
hostels  or  boarding  clubs,  and  maintains  Bible 
classes,  lectures,  and  indoor  and  outdoor  religious 
meetings.  In  the  Association  hostels,  Hindus  of 
various  castes  and  Mohammedans  eat  at  the  same 
table.  The  value  of  this  work  is  better  expressed 
by  the  words  of  a  Brahman  who  said  to  one  of 
the  secretaries:  "I  would  much  rather  have  liim 
(his  son)  live  at  the  Association  and  lose  his  caste 
but  keep  his  character,  than  to  have  him  live  with 
holy  relatives,  adhere  to  the  forms  of  caste,  and 
lose  his  character.^^ 
^igh^^  Prominent   government   officials,   among  them 

Sir  Donald  Eraser,  Governor  of  Bombay,  are  serv- 
ing as  presidents  of  local  Associations.  In  recog- 
nition of  the  educational  work  of  the  Calcutta  Col- 
lege and  Boys'  branches,  the  Government  of  Ben- 
gal has  voted  $600  annually,  and  for  the  work 
among  the  railroad  men  of  Jamalpur  the  East 
India  Railway  has  provided  the  building  and  sec- 
retarial residence  for  the  Association.  Wherever 
the  Association  has  entered  it  has  won  the  hearty 
approval  of  those  in  authority. 


Recognition 


Missionary  Agencies  193 

The  Decennial  Missionary  Conference  in  Madras  Testimony  of 
in  1903,  the  most  representative  gathering  of  Missionaries 
Protestant  missionaries  ever  held  in  India,  ex- 
pressed its  appreciation  of  the  work  of  the  Young 
Men^s  Christian  Association  in  the -following  reso- 
lution :  "The  Conference  hereby  records  its  hearty 
and  thorough  appreciation  of  the  work  of  the 
Young  Men^s  Christian  Association  in  India, 
Burma,  and  Ceylon.  The  Conference  commends 
its  general  principles  and  methods,  and  affection- 
ately accords  to  those  engaged  in  its  work  its 
praj^ers  and  fellowship,  and  emphasizes  the  strong 
claim  which  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Associa- 
tion work  in  India  has  already  established  upon 
the  prayers,  the  sympathy,  and  support  of  the 
home  churches/^ 

Young  People^s  Work 

It  is  only  in  recent  years  that  the  activities  of  importance  of 
young  people  have  become  a  vital  force  both  in  the  young  "^°°^ 
homeland  and  foreign  field.  To-day,  as  never 
before,  the  church  has  set  its  heart  upon  gripping 
the  young  people.  The  hope  of  the  church  in 
India  and  elsewhere  is  in  its  youth,  and  the 
organizations  that  can  best  win  the  young  men 
and  young  women  of  the  empire  for  the  Master 
and  direct  them  in  Christian  service,  will  be  ren- 
dering the  greatest  service  for  the  kingdom.  It 
is  becoming  more  evident  that  the  labor  lavished 


Ideal  Plan 


194        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

upon  this  generation  of  young  people  in  India  will 
bear  the  most  fruitage.  The  young  are  more 
receptive,  more  responsive  and  plastic,  and  cling 
less  tenaciously  to  their  ancestral  faith  than  those 
of  more  mature  years.  Some  of  the  organizations 
that  are  rendering  valuable  help  in  the  work  of 
evangelization  are  the  Young  People's  Society  of 
Christian  Endeavor,  the  Baptist  Young  People's 
Union,  the  Epworth  League,  the  Sunday-school, 
and  the  Young  Women's  Christian  Association. 

In  some  missions  the  evangelistic  agency  has 
been  overshadowed  by  some  other  department  of 
activity.  While  the  importance  of  the  other  agen- 
cies must  not  be  minimized,  the  neglect  of  pre- 
senting the  gospel  would  be  disastrous  to  the  whole 
missionary  enterprise.  Among  the  people  every 
effort  must  be  made  to  heal  their  physical  ills,  to 
care  for  them  in  distress,  to  teach  them  the  means 
of  obtaining  an  honest  living,  to  raise  up  an  intel- 
ligent and  efficient  leadership,  yet  it  must  be  borne 
in  mind  that  the  dominating  purpose  of  missions 
is  to  make  Christ  preeminent  in  the  lives  of  the 
millions  of  India.  If  any  department  may  be 
magnified  it  is  the  evangelistic,  but  unquestionably 
the  wiser  plan  is  to  have  all  these  vital  agencies 
permeated  with  the  spirit  of  winning  the  alle- 
giance of  the  people  to  the  Master. 


Missionary  Agencies  195 

QUESTIONS  FOR  CHAPTER  VI 

Aim:    To  Realize  the  Need  and  Value  of  the 
Various   Forms  of  Work 

l...The  Scope  of  Foreign  Missions. 

1*    What    in    general    does    the    work    of    foreign 
missions  include  and  what  does  it  not  include? 
2.*  What  is  its  ultimate  object? 

3.  Should  such  work  as  Dr.  Torrey's  in  Australia 

be  supported  by  foreign  mission  funds?    Why 
not? 

4.  Under  what  circumstances  ought  foreign  mission 

boards   to   consider   their   work   in   a   certain 
country  to  be  completed? 

II . . .  Evangelistic   Work. 

5.*  What  are  the  special  contributions  that  evan- 
gelistic work  makes  toward  realizing  the  ulti- 
mate object  of  foreign  missions?  What  are 
its  limitations? 

6.*  What  preparation  should  you  consider  neces- 
sary in  order  to  become  a  successful  evange- 
list in  India? 

7.  Tell  how  you  think  you  should  begin  to  address 
a  street  crowd? 

8.*  State  what  policy  you  should  adopt  in  regard 
to  native  helpers,  and  give  reasons? 

9.  If  you  had  a  sister  in  an  Indian  zenana  what 

would  be  your  attitude  toward  women's  work? 

10.  Give  several  reasons  why  work  by  and  for 
women  is  especially  needed  in  India. 

III. .  .Educational  Work. 
11.*  Why  is  educational  work  necessary  if  the  ulti- 
mate  object  of  foreign  missions  is  to  be  at- 
tained? 


196        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

12.  What  is  the  least  education  that  should  be  im- 

parted to  an  illiterate  native  convert? 

13.  Should  more  than  this  be  done  for  the  children 

of  such  a  convert? 

14.  How  much  education  ought  a  native  pastor  to 

have,  and  why? 

15.  What  arguments  can  you  give  for  educating 
the  Christian  community? 

16.*  To  what  extent  should  our  education  be 
modified  to  meet  the  needs  of  Indian  society? 

17.*  Would  missionary  colleges  be  justified  in  re- 
ceiving non-Christians  if  it  could  be  shown 
that  none  of  them  were  converted  during  their 
course?     Defend  your  views. 

18.  Are  our  boards  warranted  in  maintaining  col- 
leges in  India? 

IV... Literary  Work. 

19.  Try  to  estimate  how  different  your  life  would 
be  if  you  had  never  read  any  Christian  litera- 
ture. 

20.  Which  of  the  two  has  the  greater  privileges 
apart  from  literature,  the  American  or  the 
Indian  convert? 

21.  Mention  some  advantages  peculiar  to  the 
printed  page. 

22.  Can  you  imagine  a  strong  church  built  up 
without  it? 

23.*  Mention  some  kinds  of  Christian  literature 
that  you  think  would  be  especially  useful. 

Y ..  .Medical  Work. 

24.*  Give  five  arguments  for  medical  missions. 
25.  Present  as  strikingly  as  you  can  the  relative 
need  for  more  physicians  in  America  and  in 
India. 


Missionary  i^igencies  197 

26.*  State  in  detail  methods  by  which  medical 
missions  can  be  made  most  effective  as  an 
evengelistic  agency. 

YI. .  .Industrial  Work. 

27.  What  seem  to   you  to  be  the  principal   argu- 
ments against  industrial  missions? 
28    What  are  the  principal  reasons  in  its  favor? 

29.  How  will  it  contribute  to  the  ultimate  object  of 

foreign  missions? 

VII . . .  Other  Forms. 

30.  Try  to  imagine  the  feelings  with  which  you  as 

a    missionary    should    discover    in    a    famine- 
visited  village  tv/enty  starving  orphans? 

31.  How,  under  such  circumstances,  should  you 
feel  toward  the  Christian  wealth  in  America? 

32.  Give  several  reasons  for  the  value  of  young 
people's  work  in  India. 

33.  Try  to  picture  the  temptations  and  the  moral 
resources  of  the  average  Oriental  student. 

34.  What  is  the  special  value  of  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association  work  to  the  Church? 

35.  If  you  were  a  thoughtful  Hindu  which  of  these 

forms  of  missionary  work  would  most  attract 
you  toward  Christianity? 
36.*  What  would  you  consider  to  be  the  best  use  of 
these  various  methods  of  work,  if  you  had  ten 
missionaries  in  a  parish  of  a  million  people? 

References  for  Advanced  Study. — Chapter  VI 
I. .  .Evangelistic. 

Beach:   India  and  Christian  Opportunity,  182-189. 
Chamberlain:    In  the  Tiger  Jungle,   IX. 
Stewart:   Life  and  Work  in  India,  XXI. 
Jones:    India's   Problem:    Krishna   or  Christ,    242- 
248, 


198        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

Smith:   The  Conversion  of  India,  169,  178. 
Stock:    Notes    on    India  for    Missionary    Students, 
VIL 

II. .  .Educational. 

Beach:   India  and  Christian  Opportunity,  194-201. 
Jones:    India's   Problem:    Krishna   or   Christ,    248, 

252. 
Stock:  Notes  on  India  for  Missionary  Students,  46, 

59,  60,  79. 
Students  and  the  Modern  Missionary  Crusade,  376- 

378. 

111...  Medical. 

Beach:   India  and  Christian  Opportunity,  202-207. 
Ecumenical    Missionarj^    Conference    Report,    Vol. 

1—189,  202,  217,  220,  224. 
Students    and    the    Modern    Missionary     Crusade, 

372-375. 

IV. .  .Literature  Work  and  Value  of  Literature. 
Beach:   India  and  Christian  Opportunity,  207-209. 
Chamberlain:    In  the  Tiger  Jungle,  VI. 
Jones:    India's    Problem:    Krishna   or   Christ,   252- 

255, 
Smith:  The  Conversion  of  India,  179. 

Y...The  Work  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Asso- 
ciation in  India. 

"India's  Young  Men,  Their  Perils  and  Safeguards," 
5  cents. 

International  Committee,  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association,  3  West  Twenty-ninth  Street,  New 
York  City. 

Yl...The  Work  of  the  American  Bihle  Society. 
For  literature  write  to  the  American  Bible  Society, 
Bible  House,  New  York  City. 


PROBLEMS 


CHAPTER   yil 
PROBLEMS 

It  is  a  very  great  mistake  to  suppose,  as  many   Revolutionary 


intelligent  persons  seem  to  do,  that  the  modem 
missionary,  having  to  work  among  simple  and 
ignorant  people,  is  seldom  called  upon  to  deal  with 
difficult  problems.  Throughout  his  career  he  finds 
himself  face  to  face  with  many  very  strange  and 
difficult  questions,  and  these  are  often  of  such  a 
character  that  nothing  in  his  own  experience  or 
that  of  other  workers  of  other  lands  can  suggest 
any  help  to  him  in  his  perplexity.  Missionaries 
in  ancient  lands  like  India  and  China  can  appreci- 
ate this  statement  in  full  measure.  The  traditions 
of  the  people  have  the  force  of  ancient  laws,  and 
the  laws  have  all  the  sanctity  of  religious  obliga- 
tions. To  introduce  a  simple  Christian  principle 
often  seems  like  an  attempt  to  overthrow  the  gov- 
ernment, or  to  plunge  the  people  into  the  unknown 
dangers  of  a  great  revolution.  The  simplest  pos- 
sible proclamation  of  the  gospel  of  Jesus  Christ 
to  a  people  like  the  Chinese  or  Indians  is  in  reality 
revolutionary,  but  fortunately  its  full  import  is 
not  often  understood  clearly ;  in  fact  is  not  always 
clearly  perceived  even  by  the  missionary  himself. 

201 


Effect  of 
Christianity 


202 


The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 


Problem 

cf  Caste 


Attitude  of 
Missionary 
Toward  Caste 


Take  for  instance  the  problem  of  caste.  In  the 
mind  of  the  orthodox  Hindu  it  means  that  at  least 
sixty  millions  of  the  people  of  India  shall  never 
learn  to  read,  shall  never  enjoy  the  rights  of  citi- 
zenship, shall  never  enter  respectable  society,  shall 
never  have  the  right  of  selecting  a  trade  by  their 
own  free  choice,  and  shall  never  fail  to  recognize 
the  superior  social  privileges  of  those  who  have  a 
traditional  claim  to  a  higher  rank.  What  attitude 
shall  the  missionary  assume  toward  this  question? 
Shall  he  violently  denounce  its  injustice?  Shall 
he  exhort  the  timid  and  depressed  low  caste  man 
to  resist  his  oppressors  and  contend  for  his  rights  ? 
Or  shall  he  preach  a  gospel  of  patience,  a  gospel  of 
hope,  and  meanwhile  introduce  the  elements  of  a 
better  life  among  the  people  ? 

Some  of  the  early  missionaries  tried  the  experi- 
ment of  tolerating  caste  in  the  hope  that  it  would 
gradually  be  given  up,  but  in  this  hope  they  were 
sadly  disappointed.  Its  rules  and  its  spirit  have 
been  so  woven  into  the  very  fabric  of  Hindu  soci- 
ety that  no  possible  word  of  command  can  separate 
the  two.  The  system  will  disappear  in  time  from 
the  church,  as  the  somewhat  similar  system  of 
Judaism  disappeared,  but  for  the  present,  the 
Christian  missionary  and  the  Christian  Church  in 
India  are  concerned  to  know  how  to  deal  with  it. 
The  question  demands  very  wise  and  very  cautious 
treatment,  and  in  dealing  with  it  care  should  be 
taken  not  to  demand  or  to  try  to  enforce  too  many 


Problems 


203 


or  too  rigid  changes,  but  on  the  other  hand  every- 
thing in  which  it  oppresses  the  poor  and  lowly, 
everything  which  infringes  upon  civil  and  social 
right,  everything  which  denies  that  personal  free- 
dom which  is  the  common  heritage  of  all  men, 
should  be  resisted  and  treated  as  an  element  of 
hostility  to  our  common  Christianity.  When  per- 
sonal liberty  of  thought  and  action  is  assured,  a 
wise  missionary  will  not  insist  on  social  changes 
which  do  violence  to  those  personal  preferences 
which  are  peculiar  to  all  men.  In  other  words, 
personal  preferences  must  be  free,  and  converts  to 
Christianity  must  be  taught  that  they  have  no 
right  to  force  their  society  upon  persons  who  do 
not  desire  it. 

Some  excellent  missionaries,  in  earlier  years,  Failure  of  aa 
became  so  anxious  to  wipe  out  every  trace  of  caste  Experiment 
feeling,  that  they  invited  cultured  and  refined  men 
to  meet  recent  converts  who  had  been  common 
scavengers  at  an  evening  dinner.  The  guests 
accepted  the  invitation,  but  the  dinner  was  a  dis- 
mal failure.  It  was  simply  a  social  blunder  and 
would  have  been  so  regarded  in  any  part  of  the 
world. 

The  system  of  caste  is  a  crushing  incubus  to  the   Depressed 
people  of  India,  and  stands  directly  in  the  way  Elevated 
of  a  missionary  who  wishes  to  see  a  great  Chris- 
tian empire  raised  up  in  southern  Asia.     But  in 
this  noble  purpose  it  will  be  neither  wise  nor  well 
to  attempt  too  much,  or  to  be  in  too  great  haste. 


304        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

< 
or  to  confuse  the  issues  which  are  at  stake.  The 
Sudra  cannot  be  forced  upward  nor  the  Brahman 
crushed  down  into  a  position  of  social  humiliation, 
but  both  can  meet  upon  a  common  plane  of  per- 
sonal right  and  religious  privilege.  The  caste 
problem  can  be  most  easily  solved  by  bringing  ele- 
vating influences  to  bear  upon  the  low  caste  people, 
rather  than  by  wearisome  and  fruitless  efforts  to 
induce  the  high  caste  people  to  abandon  the 
special  privileges  and  social  distinction  which  they 
have  inherited  from  their  ancestors  through  a  long 
series  of  centuries.  In  other  words,  the  real  prob- 
lem involved  in  the  caste  question  in  India  is  not 
that  of  annulling  the  false  claims  of  the  higher 
castes,  but  rather  that  of  creating  a  healthy  and 
sane  feeling  of  self-respect  in  the  minds  of  the 
millions  who  are  of  low  caste  origin.  This  can  be 
only  safely  and  successfully  done  by  the  genuine 
conversion  of  the  people  to  Christianity.  Enough 
has  been  accomplished  already  to  mal^e  this  clear. 
The  depressed  and  despised  poor  of  yesterday  are 
the  intelligent  leaders  of  awakening  thousands 
to-day,  and  some  of  the  Brahman  leaders  are 
clearly  perceiving  and  confessing  that  the  leaders 
of  their  community  must  either  move  forward  or 
else  fail  in  the  race  of  progress. 
Problem  of  No  ouc  need  feel  surprised  when  told  that  some 
ciSSr**^  people  in  India  who  have  seen  more  or  less  of  the 
daily  life  of  these  depressed  classes  are  inclined  to 
doubt   the   possibility  of    elevating  them  either 


Problems  205  l 

morally  or  socially  after  they  become  Christians.  ' 

The  simple  statement  that  many  of  them  have  re-  I 

ceived  the  appellation  of  carrion-eaters  will  suffice  , 

to  destroy  all  hope  of  their  social  renovation  in  the  j 
minds  of  multitudes,  even  of  intelligent  people. 

But  we  are  always  prone  to  forget  the  social  rock  ; 

from  which  we  ourselves  have  been  hewn.    Three  | 

centuries  ago  many  of  the  ancestors  of  the  most  'j 

cultured  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  race  were  addicted  1 

to  the  practice  of  feasting  upon  puddings  made  of  1 

blood  drawn  from  living  cows.     We  forget,  too,  I 

that  three  centuries  ago  there  were  sections  of  ' 
Great  Britain  in  which  the  half  savage  farmers 

knew  no  better  method  of  plowing  than  that  of  . 

tying  the  tails  of  their  oxen  to  the  plows.    The  use  j 

of   harness   was   unknown.     The    descendants   of  j 

these  rude   and  utterly  ignorant  people  conven-  j 

iently  forget  many  pages  in  the  history  of  their  I 

ancestors  which  it  would  do  them  good  to  study.  j 
So  far  as  the  possibility  of  elevating  these  In-   Problem  of       ' 
dian  people  of  low  caste  is  concerned,  I  venture  to   cil^ses^goived   ■ 

affirm  that  the  problem  has  already  been  solved.  ! 

I  have  seen  before  my  own  eyes  a  second  genera-  1 

tion  of  Christians  drawn  from  this  class  grow  up  ] 

to  a  new  and  nobler  life  than  their  ancestors  ever  ; 

knew.    More  than  that,  I  have  seen  them  overcome  < 

the  prejudices  of  their  high  caste  neighbors  to  an  ^ 

astonishing  extent,  and  not  only  win,  but  com-  ! 

mand   their  respect  without   effort.     In  regions  * 

where  two  or  three  generations  ago  it  would  have  j 


206        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

been  considered  an  outrage  for  a  man  belonging 
to  any  of  these  depressed  classes  to  presume  to 
learn  to  read  or  to  seek  an  education  in  any  form 
whatever,  I  have  seen  the  Christian  convert  not 
only  acquiring  knowledge  but  imparting  it  with- 
out exciting  either  indignation  or  surprise.  Two 
years  ago,  when  visiting  a  high  school  in  northern 
India,  my  attention  v\-as  called  to  a  young  man 
who  was  pronounced  the  most  successful  teacher 
in  the  institution.  The  principal  of  the  school 
said  to  me  that  he  passed  more  boys  at  the  annual 
examination  than  any  other  teacher,  and  when 
I  was  in  his  room  I  noticed  that  not  only 
Brahmans  and  other  high  caste  Hindus  were 
present,  but  also  Mohammedans  of  the  better  class. 
This  successful  teacher  was  the  son  of  a  sweeper 
and  his  low  origin  was  perfectly  well  known,  and 
yet  I  saw  him  in  the  very  act  of  preparing 
Brahman  boys  for  admission  to  the  university. 
This  one  illustration  would  suffice  to  show  what 
is  possible  in  the  way  of  revolutionizing  the  posi- 
tion of  these  lowly  people,  but  it  is  only  one  among 
many. 
Polygamy  Polygamy  is  another  great  obstacle  to  mission- 
ary progress  in  India,  and  one  of  the  immediate 
problems  which  must  be  confronted  is  that  of 
deciding  how  to  settle  the  affairs  of  a  polygamous 
household  when  the  head  of  the  family  becomes  a 
Christian.  To  a  reader  in  a  Christian  land  the 
question  may  seem  simple  enough,  but  to  those 


i     -.4  ; 

1                         ...  ,-/•■? 

Brahman  Sweeper 

Extremes  of  the  Caste  System 


Garo   Polxgamous  Family,    Assam 


Problems 


207 


responsible  for  the  settlement  the  question  seems 
anything  but  simple. 

In  Africa  a  definite  policy  has  been  adopted,  but 
African  polygamy  is  very  different  from  that  of 
India.  In  Africa  the  husband  buys  his  wife  as  he 
would  purchase  a  horse  or  cow,  and  although  she 
bears  the  relation  of  a  wife  to  a  husband,  he  can 
sever  that  relation  without  notice  within  the  space 
of  five  minutes  whenever  he  chooses.  The  wife  is 
his  slave,  and  of  course  the  children  are  his  prop- 
erty also.  The  husband  can  sell  both  wife  and 
children  and  replace  the  discarded  wife  by  pur- 
chasing another,  all  in  the  space  of  twenty-four 
hours.  But  the  important  part  is  that  the  dis- 
carded wife  has  been  sold  to  another,  or  else  is  free 
to  marry  whom  she  pleases,  and  her  children  go 
with  her.  Of  course  a  missionary  who  faces  a  con- 
dition of  this  kind  not  only  can,  but  in  every  case 
must,  insist  on  a  Christian  marriage,  which,  be- 
sides ennobling  and  sanctifying  the  union  of  the 
two,  also  protects  the  wife  from  legal  sale,  and 
secures  rights  and  privileges  to  the  children. 

In  India  there  is  no  such  condition  as  this. 
Each  wife  has  been  legally  married  to  the  common 
husband,  and  the  children  are  recognized  as 
belonging  to  a  common  father  and  enjoying  such 
rights  as  the  religious  and  civil  laws  will  enable 
them  to  claim.  It  is  very  true  that  many  worth- 
less husbands  treat  their  wives  with  great  cruelty 
and  injustice,  but  the  legal  position  of  the  woman 


Polygamy 
in  Africa 


Polygamy 
in  India 


208        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

will  be  respected  in  a  court  of  law,  if  proper  appli- 
cation is  made.  It  thus  appears  that  the  question 
of  polygamy  in  India  is  somewhat  complicated; 
and  the  difficulty  is  increased  by  the  fact  that  dif- 
ferent usages,  and  to  some  extent  different  laws, 
apply  to  members  of  different  castes  or  different 
religions;  and  perhaps  no  question  which  arises 
in  the  whole  mission  field  would  perplex  a  new 
missionary  more  seriously  than  a  legal  issue  con- 
nected with  an  attempt  to  readjust  the  affairs  of 
a  polygamous  household. 
Illustration  Yery  fow  missionaries  have  dealt  successfully 
of  Polygamy  ^.^j^  ^^^  qucstiou  as  yet.  A  single  case  may  be 
mentioned  as  an  illustration.  A  Hindu  with  three 
wives  applied  to  a  missionary  for  baptism,  together 
with  ten  of  his  neighbors  who  were  monogamists. 
The  missionary  called  attention  to  the  Christian 
law  of  monogamy  and  was  told  immediately  that 
the  polygamist  would  separate  from  his  plural 
wives,  but  when  the  time  for  action  came  it  was 
found  that  he  had  no  thought  of  a  separation 
which  would  be  equivalent  to  the  Christian  idea 
of  divorce.  He  would  not  allow  his  wives  to 
remarry,  nor  would  he  allow  them  to  leave  the 
village  in  which  he  himself  resided.  He  had  no 
thought  of  surrendering  his  authority  over  them, 
and  it  was  evident  that  when  they  were  separated 
from  him  his  jealousy  would  keep  both  himself 
and  his  wives  in  constant  trouble.  The  end  of  the 
affair  was  that  the  man  was  not  baptized  and  that 


Problems 


209 


his  ten  neighbors  drew  back  also.  The  missionary, 
after  long  experience  and  wide  observation,  has 
publicly  expressed  his  conviction  that  in  ninety- 
nine  cases  out  of  a  hundred  attempts  to  break  up 
a  polygamous  household  in  India  will  result  very 
much  as  in  the  above  instance.  In  other  words,  a 
very  general  conviction  is  felt,  by  men  of  experi- 
ence, that  polygamous  households  cannot  be  sepa- 
rated permanently  and  successfully. 

It  seems  as  if  the  only  practical  question  to  be  Problem 
considered  by  the  missionaries  of  the  present  gen-  unsolved 
eration,  at  least,  is  that  of  deciding  whether  a 
polygamous  family  can  be  admitted  on  any  possi- 
ble conditions  to  the  Christian  Church.  Of  the 
wives  it  may  be  said  that  they  have  no  choice. 
Practically  nine  tenths  of  them  could  not  leave 
their  husbands  even  if  they  so  desired.  The  hus- 
band, on  the  other  hand,  would  honestly  feel,  how- 
ever it  might  seem  to  us,  that  he  could  not  break 
up  his  family. 

How  long  shall  persons  be  kept  on  trial  before  Probation 
being  admitted  into  the  Church?  If  there  is  a 
•need  of  testing  the  sincerity  of  prospective  mem- 
bers in  the  homeland  before  they  are  accepted  by 
the  Church,  how  much  greater  the  necessity  of 
proving  those  who  are  ignorant  of  the  Christian 
requirements  and  who  are  saturated  with  heathen 
practices.  A  man  may  be  swayed  by  the  gospel  at 
a  festival  far  from  home  and  become  an  honest 
inquirer.     If  baptism  is  deferred  he  may  never 


310        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 


Private 
Baptism 


Embarrass- 
ments of 
Success 


have  an  opportunity  of  receiving  the  rite  at  all. 
Some  missionaries  hold  that  it  is  right  to  stimu- 
late this  desire  by  baptism  and  trust  the  divine 
power  to  produce  fruitage,  while  others  look  upon 
this  haste  as  destructive  to  the  best  interests  of 
Christianity. 

In  a  country  where  people  are  so  prejudiced 
toward  other  faiths,  as  they  are  in  India,  a  bap- 
tismal confession  usually  precipitates  great  hard- 
ship. To  renounce  one's  faith  means  the  breaking 
of  family  ties  and  causes  cruel  persecution.  Being 
reviled  is  mild  compared  with  the  danger  of  being 
drugged  into  idiocy  or  poisoned.  The  relatives, 
especially  the  mother,  are  relentless  in  their  tor- 
ment. Under  these  circumstances  is  it  strange 
that  there  are  requests  for  private  baptism,  espe- 
cially from  young  women  and  students  ?  There  are 
some  who  advocate  secret  baptism,  believing  that 
he  who  looketh  upon  the  heart  will  deal  generously 
with  such,  but  others  hold  rigidly  to  the  necessity 
of  public  confession. 

One  of  the  most  difficult  problems  that  arises 
is  that  of  the  "mass  movements^^  in  various  sec- 
tions of  India.  The  designation  of  "rice  Chris- 
tians" is  familiar  to  all  readers  of  missionary  liter- 
ature. In  the  past,  certain  castes  or  classes  have 
almost  in  a  body  sought  entrance  to  the  Church, 
and  at  the  present  time  there  are  similar  move- 
ments. The  question  arises  whether  these  people 
are  sincere,  or  whether  they  have  come  for  the 


Problems  211 

"loaves  and  fishes.'^  Famine,  poverty,  sickness, 
misfortune,  litigation,  lack  of  employment,  desire 
for  better  marriage  alliances,  and  the  depressing 
caste  rules  are  among  the  causes  that  influence 
the  people.  Can  the  missionaries  discern  the  hearts 
of  the  applicants  ?  Another  danger,  although  the 
people  may  be  sincere  in  their  purpose,  is  the 
possibility  of  dragging  into  the  Church  caste  and 
other  heathen  customs,  because  of  their  ignorance 
of  the  meaning  of  Christianity.  There  are  some 
who  favor  receiving  large  bodies  because  it  pro- 
tects them  from  persecution,  but  others  refuse  to 
accept  them  before  they  are  properly  instructed  in 
the  new  faith.  Both  conditions  are  a  challenge  to 
the  home  Church  speedily  to  increase  its  forces  in 
order  that  all  who  desire  may  be  instructed  in  the 
principles  of  Christianity. 

Eliminating  all  unworthy  converts  does  not  end 
the  missionary's  difficulties  when  working  among 
the  poor.  Christian  baptism  deprives  many  of  em- 
ployment and  home.  If  a  man  is  in  business  he 
will  be  boycotted  by  Hindus  and  Mohammedans. 
In  many  cases  it  is  not  mere  prejudice,  but  laws 
of  caste  would  be  violated  by  trading  with  a  Chris- 
tian. The  awful  poverty  and  exclusion  of  the  con- 
verts makes  it  impossible  for  them  to  help  them- 
selves, hence  it  becomes  the  duty  of  the  missiona- 
ries to  provide  in  some  way  for  such  converts.  It 
is  a  frightful  thing  when  Christian  converts  are 
stranded  with  no  means  of  livelihood.    As  a  solu- 


Need  of 
Employment 


212        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 


Self-support 
of  Pastors 


Self-support 
Possible 


tion  of  this  grim  problem,  it  is  hoped  that  the 
organization  of  Christian  communities  or  settle- 
ments, industrial  education,  and  the  growth  of 
manufacturing  will  bring  relief. 

So  far  as  India  is  concerned,  the  mass  of  the 
converts  are  miserably  poor.  The  average  monthly 
income  of  nineteen  twentieths  of  the  Christians  in 
India  probably  does  not  exceed  two  dollars  and 
a  half.  The  people  are  so  wretchedly  poor  that  it 
seems  cruel  to  look  to  them  for  any  support  of 
their  pastors.  But  it  is  practically  the  life  prin- 
ciple in  Christianity  that  every  individual  believer 
should  bear  a  part  of  the  responsibility  of  support- 
ing the  Master's  work.  The  very  poorest  can  do 
something,  as  is  evidenced  by  the  number  of 
churches  that  are  self-supporting  among  the 
American  Baptists.  The  converts  in  India  are  a 
very  feeble  people,  but  in  the  early  future  they  will 
be  a  very  numerous  people.  We  can  never  expect 
them  to  give  an  average  of  a  cent  a  day,  but  they 
can  do  a  little.  They  could  probably  give  a  cent 
a  month,  and  at  this  rate  three  hundred  native 
Christians  could  support  their  own  pastor. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  if  converts  in  a  country 
like  India  are  initiated  into  the  proper  plan  at  the 
outset,  and  if  their  own  pastors  live  among  them, 
and  are  not  raised  too  high  above  the  average 
people  to  whom  they  minister,  the  institutions  of 
a  living  Christian  Church  can  be  permanently 
planted  on  Indian  soil  and  extended  throughout 


Problems                             213  ; 

•i 
the  empire.  Of  course  many  difficulties  will  attend 
the  work  at  the  outset,  but  as  time  passes  a  law  of  \ 
Christian  life  which  is  too  generally  overlooked  j 
will  begin  to  assert  itself.  As  certainly  as  flowers  | 
bloom  and  trees  and  plants  grow  in  the  warm  sun  " 
of  early  spring,  so  certainly  will  Christian  institu-  '> 
tions  and  Christian  people  begin  to  develop  in  nor- 
mal measure  in  India,  or  in  any  land  where  the  : 
gospel  has  free  course  and  Christ  is  glorified.  In  ' 
the  realm  of  spiritual  dynamics  much  has  been 
affirmed  and  much  illustrated  by  events,  but  the  \ 
Christian  world  has  yet  very  much  to  learn  con-  ! 
cerning  the  power  which  is  inherent  in  a  body  of  i 
humble  believers  who  obey  their  Saviour,  and  are  ; 
animated  by  the  indwelling  Spirit  of  God.  ! 
The  problem  of  church  organization  must  also  seif-  ' 
be  noticed.  No  matter  what  the  polity  favored  by  Government  , 
the  missionaries  may  be,  how  can  converts  whose  '■ 
ancestors  for  three  thousand  years  or  more  have  ; 
been  illiterate  and  ignorant  of  the  meaning  of  i 
organization  assume  the  responsibility  of  con- 
structing the  framework  of  a  church  organization  ? 
What  safeguards  can  be  devised  for  securing  the 
safety  and  integrity  of  the  Indian  Church  of  the 
future?  Is  it  wise  to  encourage  present-day  con- 
verts to  discuss  or  even  think  of  future  independ-  l 
ence,  or  any  measure  of  autonomy?  Should  not  ' 
the  analogy  of  the  present  administration  of  civil  j 
affairs  by  a  foreign  power  be  followed  by  those 


21  J:        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

entrusted  with  the  responsibility  of  the  future 
Church  of  India  ? 
Organization  jj^  reply  to  these  and  other  questions  connected 
with  the  organization  of  the  Church,  or  of  separate 
churches,  it  first  of  all  may  be  well  to  state  that 
organization  is  a  law  of  life,  and  this  holds  true 
in  the  spiritual  realm  as  well  as  in  the  natural 
world.  A  living  Church  will  in  every  case  develop 
lines  of  organization.  The  men  of  to-day  are 
learning  lessons  which  will  be  inherited  by  chil- 
dren and  grandchildren,  but  the  ultimate  result 
will  undoubtedly  be  that  the  Christian  churches 
of  India  will  administer  their  own  ecclesiastical 
affairs.  It  can  hardly  be  otherwise,  and  it  cer- 
tainly is  not  desirable  that  it  should  be  otherwise. 
So  far  as  the  converts  of  the  present  generation 
are  concerned,  they  have  seldom,  if  indeed  ever, 
manifested  a  disposition  to  abuse  their  privileges. 
There  are  many  foreign  missionaries  in  the  land 
who  have  committed  their  rights,  and  even  their 
ministerial  character  unreservedly  into  the  hands 
of  their  India  brethren,  and  in  no  instance  has 
fraternal  love  and  confidence  been  abused. 
Counter  rpi^g  Ari/u  Samaj,  one  of  the  reformincr  bodies  of 

Movements     ^^.      ^     .       *^  ,  ''  n     i       ,         n  ,. 

Hinduism,  has  accepted  the  burden  oi  purging  its 
religion  from  superstition  and  leading  its  people 
back  to  one  God.  It  is  also  bent  upon  extermi- 
nating Christianity.  Mohammedanism  is  engaged 
in  an  organized  propaganda  to  hinder  missions  by 
sending  preachers  to  attack  Christianity  and  win 


Problems  215 

back  any  who  have  renounced  its  faith.  Hinduism 
has  ceased  being  simply  defensive  and  is  now 
viciously  assaulting  the  belief  in  the  resurrection 
of  Christ  and  other  fundamental  teachings.  The 
deplorable  efforts  of  individuals  from  the  West, 
like  Mrs.  Besant,  Madame  Blavatsk}^,  and  Miss 
Noble,  are  having  an  unwholesome  influence  on 
the  minds  of  the  people.  Through  their  exertions 
in  some  of  our  Western  cities  the  "yellow-robed 
Hindu  monk^^  is  parading  Christianized-Hin- 
duism  before  "select^'  audiences.  Following  the 
example  of  the  missionaries  both  Mohammedanism 
and  Hinduism  are  employing  the  agencies  of 
preaching,  the  press,  and  education  among  their 
people.  Modern  Hinduism  has  even  resorted  to 
holding  a  weekly  devotional  meeting  and  has 
organized  a  Young  Men's  Hindu  Association  in 
imitation  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Associa- 
tion. In  addition  they  are  also  discovering  in 
their  literature  teachings  that  are  similar  to  those 
of  Christianity,  and  by  this  method  are  seeking  to 
satisfy  many  hungry  hearts.  While  these  move- 
ments are  not  widespread,  they  are  fraught  with 
danger,  because  they  are  either  led  or  espoused  by 
able  natives  who  have  a  potent  influence  over  the 
people. 

Missionary  leaders  in  India  and  missionary  sec-   Missionary 
retaries  are  not  perfectly  agreed  in  the  views  which   ^°^^^y 
they  take  of  the  present  situation  or  of  the  imme- 
diate duty  of  the  Churches  of  the  homeland.  Some 


216         The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

favor  a  polic}-  of  expansion,  while  others  would 
concentrate  their  efforts  upon  chosen  portions  of 
the  vast  field  before  them.  Some  would  seek  out 
the  influential  classes,  while  others  would  go 
directly  to  the  masses.  Some  would  advise 
thorough  work  even  though  the  fruit  might  be 
limited,  while  others  would  cast  the  gospel  net  into 
the  great  sea  of  humanity  although  assured  that 
it  would  bring  to  them  a  great  mass  of  human 
beings  of  "every  kind."  ^Yho  are  right  ?  What  is 
the  best  policy  and  the  best  method  ?  Should  the 
missionaries  and  the  Churches  which  sustain 
them,  take  broad  views  and  expect  great  results,  or 
should  they  move  cautiously  and  avoid  the  snare 
of  a  zeal  which  is  mixed  with  unconscious  ambi- 
tion to  lead  great  movements  and  achieve  great 
victories  ? 

Financial  Souic  thouglitful  fricuds  of  missious  regard  the 
present  financial  basis  of  the  enterprise  as  unsat- 
isfactory, and  predict  early  embarrassment  and 
ultimate  failure  unless  a  radical  change  is  effected. 
In  recent  A'ears  missionaries  have  often  been 
quoted  as  saying  that  their  success  has  become 
their  greatest  embarrassment.  Converts  multiply 
more  rapidly  than  the  missionary  income  increases, 
and  hence  the  work  must  soon  either  stop  or  be 
carried  on  under  conditions  which  will  lead  to 
results  perhaps  worse  than  positive  failure.  In 
other  words,  the  financial  problem  is  regarded  as 
the  most   serious   of   all   pending  questions.     It 


Problem 


Problems  217 

seems^  in  fact,  to  illustrate  the  Saviour's  parable 
of  the  man  who  attempted  to  build  a  tower  with- 
out at  first  having  made  a  correct  estimate  of  the 
probable  cost. 

It  may  be  true,  and  indeed  it  does  seem  to  be  so,  count  the  c 
that  the  Churches  have  not  as  yet  counted  the  cost 
of  the  great  missionary  tower  which  they  are  try- 
ing to  build,  but  it  is  not  too  late  yet  for  them  to 
correct  their  mistake.  The  cost  will  be  very  great 
indeed,  but  never  so  great  as  to  compare  for  a 
moment  with  the  expense  involved  in  a  great  war 
of  conquest  by  the  children  of  this  world.  When 
the  object  to  be  attained  and  the  difficulties  of 
the  work  are  considered,  the  missionary  enterprise 
is  a  marvel  of  simplicity  and  cheapness,  but  this 
does  not  change  the  fact  that  success  upon  even 
a  moderate  scale  must  soon  involve  an  expenditure 
to  be  reckoned  in  terms  of  eight  figures  instead  of 
seven.  If  a  full  solution  of  this  problem  cannot 
be  produced  at  once,  a  good  deal  of  light  can  cer- 
tainly be  thrown  upon  it  by  taking  two  striking 
facts  into  consideration.     . 

In  the  first  place,  the  Churches  have  not  yet   Alphabet  of 

1  1  T,  i-1  1    1     I,    J.       -C  Proportionate 

learned  even  so  much  as  the  alphabet  oi  proper-  Qj^jng 
tionate  giving,  nor  have  they  mastered  a  single  les- 
son in  the  art  of  systematic  collecting.  The  tradi- 
tional plan  of  issuing  appeals  and  trusting  to  the 
spontaneous  inclination  of  the  givers,  is  still  the 
favorite  plan  of  most  missionary  societies.  A  very 
little  investigation  never  fails  to  show  that  mil- 


of  Giving 


218        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

lions  never  give  anytliing  at  all,  vrhile  millions 
more  give  small  sums  in  a  perfunctory  way.  The 
actual  resources  of  the  evangelical  Churches  of 
!N'orth  America  are  so  very  great,  that  when  placed 
in  comparison  with  the  actual  revenues  of  the 
several  missionary  societies,  they  seem  almost 
fabulous. 
Po^sibiHties  Accordiug  to  the  latest  statistics  there  are 
twenty-two  million  Protestant  church  members 
in  the  United  States  and  Canada.  These  millions 
are  all  avowedly  disciples  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  as 
such  are  taught  to  pray  daily  for  the  coming  of 
his  kingdom  in  this  world.  If  each  and  all  of 
these  millions  were  to  give  the  sum  of  one  cent 
daily  for  the  spiritual  conquest  of  the  non-Chris- 
tian world,  the  result  would  be  an  annual  mission- 
ary revenue  of  over  $80,000,000.  An  annual 
revenue  of  such  a  sum  would  not  only  meet  all 
the  demands  of  all  the  mission  fields  of  the  world, 
but  would  enable  the  missionary  leaders  at  home 
and  abroad  to  extend  their  fields  and  increase  their 
agencies  tenfold.  The  real  problem  pertains, 
then,  not  to  the  mission  fields,  but  to  the  home 
Churches.  The  Churches  of  America  are  abun- 
dantly able  not  only  to  meet  all  the  wants  of  our 
foreign  missions  for  the  immediate  future,  but 
to  provide  for  an  extension  of  the  work  far  beyond 
the  dreams  of  anyone  in  the  mission  field.  Indeed, 
the  above  estimate  hardly  touches  the  question  of 
the  real  ability  and  the  resources  of  the  Christians 


Problems  219 

of  America.  If  their  hearts  were  really  enlisted 
in  this  work,  if  they  really  understood  that  they 
■were  obeying  a  summons  from  Christ  himself,  if 
they  were  fully  awake  to  the  perception  of  their 
immediate  duty  as  individuals,  and  if  all  began 
to  give  according  to  their  actual  ability,  the  $80,- 
000,000  would  be  doubled,  trebled,  and  even  quad- 
rupled without  an  effort.  The  real  need  is  a  revi- 
val of  missionary  interest.  A  missionary  gospel 
must  be  preached,  and  those  who  bear  the  Chris- 
tian name,  both  old  and  young,  be  made  aware  that 
they  are  neglecting  a  responsibility  which  in  the 
most  solemn  sense  has  been  laid  upon  them  by  the 
Master  himself. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  CHAPTER  VII 

Aim:   To  Realize  the  Difficulties  that  Must  be 
Overcome  in  the  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

1. .  .Difficulties  Compared  with  Other   Countries. 

1.  Compare  the  difnculties  in  missionary  work  with 

those  in  Africa. 

2.  How  do  the   difficulties  compare  with  those   in 

Japan?     In  the  homeland? 
3.*  In  which  country  would  you  prefer  to  work  for 
Christ? 

11. .  .Prol)lem  of  Caste. 

4.  What  do  you  consider  the  greatest  difficulty  in 

Indian  mission  work? 
5.*  How  would  you  show  an  Indian  that  the  caste 
system  is  injuring  him? 


220         The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

6.  Do  you  think  that  the  idea  of  brotherhood  would 

appeal  to  an  Indian?     Why? 
7.*     Which     are     the     most     efficient     missionary 

agencies   for   elevating  the   depressed  classes? 

Why? 

111. .  .Pi'oJjlem  of  Polygamy. 

8.  Why  is  polygamy  wrong? 

9.*  What  effect  has  it  on  home  life? 

10.  How  would  you  show  a  polygamist  the  evils 
of  the  system? 

11.*  Is  there  any  possibility  of  receiving  polyga- 
mous persons  into  Church  membership?  Vv'hy 
not? 

IV. .  .Church  Relationship. 

12.  What  requirements  would  you  make  of  an  In- 

dian before  baptizing  him? 

13.  Why  would  you  not  baptize  an  Indian  privately': 
14.*  Do  you  believe  that  the   Indian   Church  can 

support  its  native  ministry?     Why? 

15.  What  degree  of  self-government  would  you 
allow  the  Indian  Church? 

V. .  .Christian  Stewardship. 

16.  What  is  the  Old  Testament  basis  for  tithing? 
17.*  Do  you  believe  that  the  poor  as  well  as  the 

wealthy  should  give  a  tenth?    Why? 

3  8.*  Should  missionaries  be  expected  to  make 
greater  sacrifices  than  we  in  the  homeland? 

19.  Do  you  believe  that  the  home  Church  is  able 
to  support  sufficient  reinforcements  to  evan- 
gelize the  non-Christian  world?     W^hy? 

20.*  How  can  you  assist  in  overcoming  these  diffi- 
culties in  the  Christian  Conquest  of  India? 


Problems  221 

i 

Refebences  ioe  Advanced  Study. — Chapteb  VII  j 

I 
I . . .  Caste.  I 

Carmichael:   Things  As  They  Are,  81-97.  | 

Curtis:    Modern   India,   XXIV.  ■; 

Denning:    Mosaics  from  India,  XV,  XVI. 
Hunter:  Brief  History  of  the  Indian  Peoples,  96-98. 
Jones:  India's  Problem:  Krishna  or  Christ,  270-274. 

11...  Self-support. 

Beach:   India  and  Christian  Opportunity,  229-233. 
Jones:    India's   Problem:    Krishna   or   Christ,    274- 

277,   282-286. 
Stewart:   Life  and  Work  in  India,  328-331.  i 

Stover:  India  a  Problem,  184,  191,  199,  250. 

111. .  .Christian  Steivardship.  . 

Bosworth:  "The  New  Testament  Conception  of  the  i 

Disciple  and  his  Money." 
Schauffler:  "Money:   Its  Nature  and  Power." 
Strong:   "Money  and  the  Kingdom." 
For    other    pamphlets    on    Christian    stewardship 

write   to   the   secretary   of   your   denominational 

missionary  board. 


RESULTS 


CHAPTER    YIII 
RESULTS 

The  final  test  of  the  value  of  modern  missions  The  Test 
is  that  of  results.  Are  they  successful?  Do  mis-  '^^  ^'^^^uKs 
sionaries  accomplish  the  task  which  they  have 
undertaken?  In  the  face  of  mighty  opposing 
forces  missions  have  won  amazing  triumphs. 
Property  has  been  acquired,  languages  mastered, 
translations  made,  literature  published  and  circu- 
lated, converts  added,  intelligence  advanced,  lives 
transformed,  native  workers  enlisted,  women 
emancipated,  reforms  inaugurated,  heathenism 
stirred  to  its  very  foundations,  and  a  considerable 
constituency  leavened  with  the  spirit  of  Chris- 
tianity. 

After  a  century  of  work  the  Church  can  boast   Property 
of  possessing  thousands  of  acres  of  land  and  a 
large  number  of  substantial  buildings  that  have 
been  erected  to  the  cause  of  Christ.    These  repre-  ■ 

sent  an  investment  of  ten  million  dollars  contribu-  i 

ted  by  Christians  of  the  West,  and  by  the  natives.  i 

There  are  churches  and  chapels,  colleges,  schools,  i 

and  dormitories,  hospitals  and  printing  houses, 
residences    for   missionaries    and   native    helpers,  i 

Christian  Association  and  other  buildings.  These 
structures  are  a  gigantic  asset  in  the  missionary 
enterprise  of  the  empire.  ' 

225  I 


226 


The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 


Literature 


Progress  of 
First  Half 
Century 


In  a  land  where  prejudices  are  so  strong  one  of 
the  most  effective  messengers  is  the  printed  page. 
Over  forty  presses  are  producing  more  than  four 
million  copies  of  leaflets,  books,  and  periodicals 
for  evangelistic  and  educational  work  annu- 
ally. The  Bible  has  been  translated  into  nearly 
seventy  of  the  most  important  languages  and  dia- 
lects. Besides  this  there  is  an  abundance  of  uplift- 
ing Christian  literature  available  to  the  people, 
that  will  continue  to  do  its  leavening  work  quietly, 
regardless  of  the  change  of  workers  and  mission- 
ary policy. 

Only  a  part  of  the  good  work  done  can  be  tabu- 
lated in  statistical  columns,  and  these  never  can  tell 
a  complete  story.  During  the  first  half  of  the  last 
century,  before  the  era  of  railways  and  cheap  post 
routes,  the  missionaries  of  India  were  isolated 
from  one  another,  and  it  was  not  until  the  year 
1851  that  the  first  attempts  were  made  to  collect 
the  statistics  of  all  the  Protestant  missions  in  the 
empire.  At  the  close  of  1851  the  total  number  of 
Christians  in  India  under  the  care  of  Protestant 
missionaries  was  91,092,  but  of  these  only  14,661 
were  communicants.  The  number  of  foreign  mis- 
sionaries reported  was  339,  and  the  number  of 
native  pastors  was  only  twenty-one.  At  the  present 
day  these  figures  seem  disappointing,  but  it  should 
be  remembered  that  a  large  proportion  of  these 
missionaries  were  young  men,  not  yet  familiar 
with   Indian   languages,   and   it   should   also   be 


and  after  a 
Century 


Results  227 

explained  that  for  many  years  most  missionaries 
were  unwisely  too  cautious  in  admitting  natives  to 
the  ranks  of  authorized  preachers. 

During   the   second   half   of   the   last   century   Agencies  at 
steady  progress  was  made,  and  at  the  meeting  of 
the  Decennial  Missionary  Conference  in  Madras, 
at  the  close  of  1902,  the  following  statistics'  were  I 

reported :  | 

j 

Ordained  Protestant  Male  Missionaries       1,049  ' 

Ordained  Native  Preachers 905 

Unordained    Native    Preachers 6,653  ; 

Native    Teachers 9,050  \ 

College  and  Upper  School  Students....     52,597  ■ 

Lower    School   Pupils 162,645 

These  figures  were  sufficiently  encouraging,  but  women's         ■ 

less  so  than  those  showing  the  rise  and  extraordi-  Agencies          ^ 

nary  progress  of  missionary  work  among  women.  i 

This  was  practically  a  new  work,  and  the  preju-  ; 

dices  of  the  people,  not  to  mention  the  misgivings  | 

of  some  missionaries,  should  be  taken  into  account  ' 

when  regarding  the  extraordinary  progress  made  I 

as  indicated  in  these  statistics :  ; 

Foreign  and   Eurasian   Agents 1,302 

Native    Agents 5,965 

Medical  Agents,  Foreign  and  Eurasian..       193  ' 

Native    Medical    Agents 157 

^Latest  statistics  in  Appendix  E.  i 


22S        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 


Agents,  Com- 
muracants, 
and  Adherents 


Comparison 
with  other 
Religions 


The  total  number  of  Christian  agents  of  all 
kinds  was  reported  as  25^799,  while  the  total  num- 
ber of  communicants  was  343,906,  and  the  total 
number  of  native  Protestant  Christians  of  all  ages 
lacked  only  21,06-1  of  being  a  round  million.  Later 
reports  from  various  parts  of  the  empire  indicate 
that  the  present  Protestant  Christian  community 
numbers  much  more  than  a  million  souls  and  is 
steadily  increasing. 

The  official  census  of  1901  reports  a  Christian 
population  of  2,923,241  of  all  branches.^  This  is 
an  increase  of  640,000  during  the  previous  decade, 
a  growth  four  times  as  rapid  as  that  of  the  whole 
population.  By  comparing  the  data  for  the  vari- 
ous religions  of  the  empire,  and  including  only  the 
increase  of  the  native  Protestant  Christians,  the 
progress  is  still  more  satisfying.  The  figures  for 
the  ten  years  preceding  1901  are  as  follow:^ 


Protestant  native  Christians  about  50.87  per  cent. 

Buddhists     32.88  " 

Non-Protestant    native    Christians..   21.44  " 

Sikhs     lo-OT  " 

Mohammedans     8.96 

Jews     6.01  " 

Parsees     4.76  " 

Hindus    28  "       "       dec. 

Jains     5.82  " 

Animists,    etc 6.15  " 

Increase  of  total  population 2.45  " 

^Includes  Roman  Catholics. 

^Quoted  bv  Beach,  India  and  Christian  Opportunity, 
251. 


Results 


229 


Moreover,  in  the  census  the  adherents  of  nine 
different  religions  are  tabulated,  and  among  these 
the  Christians  occupy  the  fifth  place  in  number. 
And  yet  many  writers  and  tourists  persist  in 
reporting  to  the  outer  world  that  missionary  work 
in  India  has  been  a  failure. 

No  doubt  the  reader  will  wish  to  know  about  the 
details  of  the  work.  Someone,  for  instance,  will 
wish  to  ask  about  the  converts.  In  what  way  are 
they  changed  when  they  become  Christians?  Do 
they  adopt  European  habits?  Do  they  give  up 
Oriental  notions  and  prejudices?  How  do  they 
conduct  public  worship? 

As  a  rule,  converts  make  some  change  in  their 
dress,  food,  and  style  of  living.  Like  the  disciples 
of  Jesus,  they  have  to  be  taught  how  to  pray.  In 
most  cases  they  prefer  to  sing  native  tunes,  and  if 
left  to  themselves,  they  incline  to  adopt  Oriental 
methods  of  worship.  In  village  chapels  there  is 
often  an  absence  of  furniture,  except  a  small  stand 
and  a  single  chair.  The  people  sit  on  mats,  often 
of  very  cheap  material.  A  village  chapel  may  not 
cost  more  than  twenty-five  dollars,  and  its  furni- 
ture two  or  three  dollars  more.  But  the  children 
and  most  of  the  young  people  can  read,  and  the 
service  is  intelligent  and  devout.  Morally  the 
people  are  not  perfect,  but  relatively,  if  allowance 
is  made  for  difference  of  advantages,  they  will 
compare  favorably  with  an  average  Western  con- 
gregation. 


Christians 
Occupy  Fifth 
Place  in 
Numbers 


Change 

in  Converts 


Living 

and  Worship 


230        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 


Increased 
Intelligence 


Recognized 

Christian 

Community 


As  a  community  the  Indian  Protestant  Chris- 
tians have  gained  steadily  in  intelligence,  so  that 
now  they  supply  more  than  twenty-one  times  their 
quota  of  the  students  and  pupils  in  the  schools, 
and  command  the  respect  of  their  non-Christian 
neighbors  to  an  extent  wholly  unknown  in  past 
years.  This  is  especially  noticeable  in  the  case  of 
converts  from  the  lowest  social  classes,  some  of 
whom  are  now  treated  with  much  respect.  It 
begins  to  be  evident  that  in  coming  years  the  power 
of  the  caste  system  will  be  broken  much  sooner, 
and  more  effectively,  than  has  generally  been  sup- 
posed. In  many  lines  of  service  the  best  equipped 
men  will  win  the  best  positions,  and  in  India  offi- 
cial position  carries  social  respect  with  it. 

Among  the  striking  results  of  missionary  labor 
in  India  a  conspicuous  place  should  be  assigned 
to  the  fact  that  there  is  now  a  recognized  Christian 
community  in  the  empire,  and  that,  altogether 
apart  from  the  government,  it  is  a  recognized 
power  in  the  land.  Fifty  years  ago  Indian  Chris- 
tians were  almost  unknoA^Ti  in  all  the  region  north 
of  Calcutta  and  Bombay,  while  in  southern  India 
the  term  Christian  was  understood  to  apply  chiefly 
to  the  communities  raised  up  during  the  era  of 
the  early  Portuguese  and  Dutch  rulers.  But 
to-day  fhe  term  Christian,  as  applied  to  natives 
of  India,  has  a  very  different  meaning.  It  is  a 
more  definite  and  positive  term.  It  partakes  of 
the  character  of  the  Protestant  missionary  body 


Results                             231  j 

i 

of  the  empire.    It  carries  with  it  the  idea  of  defi-  ■ 

nite  belief  and  positive  moral  character,     Chris-  : 

tians  of  this  class  are  found  far  and  near.    They  5 

preach  and  worship  in  all  the  leading  languages  ■ 
of  the  empire.    They  publish  several  weekly  papers 

in  English — papers  owned  and  edited  by  Indian  ■ 

Christians — and  issue  many  publications   in  the  ] 

various  vernaculars.     One  of  their  number  has  ■ 

been  a  member  of  the  Viceroy's  Legislative  Coun-  i 

cil,   and   another    a  member   of   the   Legislative  ; 

Council  of  Bengal.     The  names  of  Christian  stu-  , 

dents  appear  in  the  lists  of  applicants  for  univer-  | 

sity  degrees  so  constantly  that  their  presence  no  j 

longer  occasions  any  remark.  ^ 

Pandita  Eamabai's  noble  work  for  the  uplifting  prominent       I 

of  her  sisters  is  already  well  known.    A  Brahman  ^°^^^          \ 

Converts  ! 

widow,  she  lost  her  father  very  early  in  life,  and  i 

consecrated  herself  to  the  redemption  of  Hindu  j 

women.     Her  deeds  of  faith  and  philanthropy  are  I 

expressed  in  more  than  two  thousand  unfortunate  i 

ones  whom  she  is  protecting,  training,  and  giving  { 

a  vision  of  Christ.     The  father  of  the  illustrious  i 

Sorabji  sisters  was  a  converted  Parsee ;  one  of  his  j 

daughters,    the    widow    of    an    Englishman,   has  j 

exceptional  ability  as  a  singer.     One  was  a  repre-  ■ 

sentative  at  the  World's  Parliament  of  Religions  " 

in  Chicago.    The  third  and  most  distinguished  is 
Cornelia  Sorabji,  a  brilliant  barrister  and  writer  .' 

in  India.     Her  graduation  thesis  at  Oxford,  on  ' 

Roman  Law,  was  one  of  the  best  papers  ever  pro-  ! 


232        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

duced  at  that  institution.  Mrs.  Sathianthan,  a 
talented  writer,  established  the  first  English 
monthly  magazine  for  the  women  of  India. 
After  an  address  by  Miss  Singh  at  the  Ecumeni- 
cal Missionary  Conference  in  New  York,  in  1900, 
ex-President  Harrison  said  that  if  he  had  con- 
tributed a  million  dollars  to  missions,  and  had 
seen  only  one  such  convert,  he  would  consider  it  a 
profitable  investment.  These  and  a  host  of  other 
women  are  achieving  results  for  the  kingdom 
among  their  sisters,  and  it  is  not  extravagant  to 
state  that  they  are  a  mighty  force  for  righteous- 
ness in  the  land. 
Notable  "Beginning  with  those  early  confessors,  Krishna 
Pal  and  Ko  Thah-byu,  one  passes  down  through 
the  century  noticing  the  names  of  such  high  caste 
converts  as  Krishna  Mohun  Banerjea,  D.  L.,  distin- 
guished as  a  Hindu  editor  and,  after  his  conversion, 
as  a  professor  in  Bishop's  College,  as  a  clergyman 
of  the  Church  of  England,  and  above  all  as  the 
native  father  of  Bengali  literature ;  of  Eam  Chan- 
dra Bose,  M.  A.,  whose  career  as  an  educator  would 
have  placed  him  in  the  highest  official  position, 
had  he  not  chosen  to  become  an  evangelist  under 
the  American  Methodists,  until  the  demands  made 
upon  him  as  a  lecturer  in  India  and  at  Chicago 
University,  where  he  gained  his  M.  A.,  brought 
him  before  a  larger  audience ;  of  Professor  Ram 
Chandra  whose  work  on  the  problems  of  Maxima 
and  Minima  made  his  name  famous  in  the  univer- 


Native 
Leaders 


Eesults  233 

sities  of  Europe,  as  did  later  writings  on  Differen- 
tial and  Integral  Calculus,  and  who  became  head 
of  the  Department  of  Instruction  in  one  of  the 
native  states;  of  Eev.  Imad-ud-din,  D.  D.,  the 
most  distinguished  accession  from  Indian  Moham- 
m.edanism,  whose  conversion  is  of  thrilling  inter- 
est, and  whose  twenty-four  Christian  books  are  a 
most  valued  addition  to  Indian  literature;  and  of 
Rev.  ISTarayan  Sheshadri,  a  Brahman  convert  of 
Dr.  John  Wilson,  who  gained  so  enviable  a  reputa- 
tion during  his  visit  in  America,  whence  he  car- 
ried home  from  McGill  University  of  Montreal, 
the  degree  of  D.  D.  Nor  do  these  men  belong  only 
to  the  past.  At  King  Edward's  coronation  in  Lon- 
don, as  emperor  of  India,  twenty  representatives 
of  the  native  Indian  Church  were  present,  six  of 
them  being  ruling  princes/'^ 

The  record  of  service  rendered  by  the  Christian  Foreign 
missionaries  of  India  is  one  which  will  be  better  ^^^^°^°^ 
appreciated  a  century  hence  than  it  is  at  the 
present  day.  The  first  generation  of  missionaries 
was  misunderstood  and  misrepresented,  but  no 
whisper  against  them  or  their  successors  is  heard 
in  official  circles  to-day.  It  is  conceded  by  all 
parties  that  they  have  done  a  good  and  great  work, 
while  they  themselves  are  animated  by  stronger 
faith  and  brighter  hopes  than  ever  before.  Their 
influence  has  been  felt  in  almost  all  parts  of  the 
globe.     Native  preachers  have  been  asked  for  in 

^Eeacli.  India  and  Christian  Opportunity,  260,  261. 


234        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

places  as  far  distant  as  the  Fiji  Islands  and  Natal, 
and  converts  have  been  reported  from  Demarara 
and  East  Africa.  Able  missionaries  have  gone 
from  India  into  Persia  and  Arabia,  and  converts 
have  been  won  in  the  sealed  regions  of  Tibet  and 
Nepal.  When  God  by  his  providence  opened  the 
gates  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  missionaries  from 
India  were  among  the  first  to  enter,  and  mnch  of 
the  work  now  making  notable  progress  in  the 
islands  of  Malaysia  had  its  origin  in  India. 
Indeed,  as  far  back  as  the  time  of  Dr.  Carey,  mis- 
sionaries were  sent  from  Calcutta  to  the  island 
of  Java.  In  short,  missionary  work  in  India  has 
not  only  been  notably  successful,  but  the  key  posi- 
tion of  the  empire  among  the  Asiatic  powers, 
makes  the  conversion  of  India  the  most  important 
project  now  engrossing  the  attention  of  the  Chris- 
tian world. 
Caste  Tyranny  In  a  prcvious  chapter  mention  has  been  made 
of  the  persistent  opposition  of  the  higher  castes 
to  the  education  of  the  low  caste  and  outcasts 
children.  This  opposition  continues  to  a  very 
great  extent  in  some  sections,  but  in  other  places 
the  logic  of  events  is  overcoming  it.  While  many 
oppose,  the  poor  people  quietly  go  ahead  and  allow 
their  children  to  be  educated,  and  when  the  boys 
and  girls  reach  mature  years  they  seem  to  drift 
naturally  into  the  positions  for  which  they  are 
fitted.  Their  critics  or  opponents  may  not  like  it, 
but  they  cannot  help  it,  and  it  is  no  wonder  that 


Being  Broken 


Eesults  •  235 

intelligent  persons  begin  to  see  that  the  rule  of 
caste  tyranny  is  fast  approaching  its  end.  The 
practical  meaning  of  all  this  is  that  in  going  to 
the  lowly  poor  in  the  character  of  God's  messen- 
gers, and  pointing  out  to  them  a  pathway  of 
enlightenment  and  social  elevation,  the  missiona- 
ries have  struck  a  blow  at  the  system  of  caste  from 
which  it  never  can  recover.  The  future  of  the 
system  is  only  a  question  of  time.  Many  years 
may  elapse  before  the  end  comes,  but  as  a  social 
force  the  traditional  caste  system  of  India  cannot 
survive  the  education  and  enlightenment  of  the 
great  mass  of  low  caste  and  outcaste  people  who 
now  grope  in  mental  and  spiritual  darkness. 
India  will  yet  be  freed  from  this  great  barrier  to 
her  progress,  and  when  the  day  of  deliverance 
comes,  it  will  be  seen  and  acknowledged  by  all  that 
it  was  the  Christian  missionaries  above  all  others 
who  introduced  the  agencies  which  effected  this 
great  reform. 

Aside  from  the  religious  question  altogether,  it  Reforms 
is  certain  that  in  addition  to  the  good  work  done  ^^'^  Results 
directly,  the  agencies  introduced  by  the  missiona- 
ries have  also  resulted  in  much  good  to  the  people. 
Millions  are  better  off  and  enjoy  greater  privileges 
and  opportunities  than  would  have  fallen  to  their 
lot  had  the  missionaries  never  entered  the  empire. 
To  confirm  this  statement,  it  is  necessary  to  refer 
to  only  one  change  which  has  occurred  since  Dr. 
Carey  landed  in  Calcutta ;  I  refer  to  the  changed 


236        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

position  of  Indian  womanhood.  If  Christian  mis- 
sionaries had  never  come  to  India,  the  suttee  fires 
might  still  be  burning  on  the  banks  of  the  Ganges, 
the  inmates  of  the  zenanas  would  still  be  without 
medical  relief,  and  the  whole  w^omanhood  of  the 
empire  would  have  been  absolutely  illiterate. 
Infant  marriage  and  enforced  widowhood  would 
have  gone  unchallenged,  and  thus  one  half  of 
the  population  would  have  been  condemned  to 
a  life  of  mental  disabilities  and  social  wrongs. 
Had  Christian  missionaries  never  come  to  India, 
millions  of  the  people  would  have  been  wholly 
illiterate  to-day,  and  any  proposal  to  teach  them 
would  have  been  resented  as  a  public  wrong. 
Whole  tribes  that  are  now  devout  Christian 
believers  would  have  been  worshiping  demons,  or 
adoring  snakes,  monkeys,  or  cows.  Before  the 
advent  of  the  Christian  missionaries  into  the 
country,  hospitals  had  been  built  for  cows  and 
elephants,  for  snakes  and  tigers,  for  insects  and 
birds,  but  not  for  human  beings.  The  change  thus 
far  effected  among  the  people  is  by  no  means  com- 
plete, but  if  not  complete,  it  is  not  stationary. 
It  is  a  progressive  movement  and  one  that  gains 
both  momentum  and  speed  as  time  passes.  Great 
changes  for  the  better  may  be  anticipated  as  the 
years  go  by  and  it  is  hoped  that  India  will 
regain  the  position  she  once  held,  but  unhappily 
forfeited,  as  the  intellectual  leader  of  the  Asiatic 
nations. 


Results 


237 


In  estimating  the  value  of  Christian  missions 
in  India,  we  should  not  lose  sight  of  the  good  work 
done,  or  good  influences  exerted  by  the  missiona- 
ries among  the  Europeans  in  the  empire.  Dr. 
Carey  and  his  colleagues  found  that  the  European 
society  of  Calcutta  was  almost  incredibly  and  reck- 
lessly bad,  and  this  accounts  for  the  fierce  hostility 
with  which  the}'  were  greeted.  Sir  John  Kaye, 
well  known  as  a  writer  on  Indian  subjects,  says  of 
European  society  in  Calcutta  at  that  period : 

"There  was  no  society  whose  frowns  the  sensu- 
alist might  dread.  His  doings  on  those  far-off 
shores  were  unknown  to  his  countrymen  in  Eng- 
land. In  India  he  was  as  far  beyond  the  observa- 
tion of  parent,  brother,  or  friend,  as  though  he 
dwelt  on  another  planet.  There  were,  in  truth,  no 
outward  motives  to  preserve  morality  of  conduct, 
or  even  decency  of  demeanor.  So  from  the 
moment  of  landing,  the  first  settlers  cast  off  all 
those  bonds  which  had  restrained  them  in  their 
native  land.  They  regarded  themselves  as  privi- 
leged beings — privileged  to  violate  all  the  obliga- 
tions of  religion  and  moralit}^,  and  to  outrage  all 
the  decencies  of  life.  Many  of  those  who  went 
there  were  desperate  adventurers  whom  England 
had,  in  the  emphatic  language  of  the  Scriptures, 
^spued  out' ;  men  who  sought  those  golden  sands  to 
repair  broken  fortunes ;  to  bury  in  obscurity  a  sul- 
lied name,  or  to  wring  with  lawless  hands  from 
the  weak  the  wealth  which  thev  had  not  the  honest 


Europeans 


Vice  of 
Europeans 


Europeans 


238        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

capacity  or  character  to  obtain  by  honest  means 
at  home.  They  gambled,  they  drank,  they  reveled 
in  all  kinds  of  debauchery.  Associated  in  vice, 
they  often  pursued  one  another  with  desperate 
malice.  Among  them  there  was  no  fellowship  but 
that  of  vice." 

It  is  not  a  pleasant  duty  to  place  this  repulsive 
Changes  in  picture  OH  exhibition,  but  it  is  due  to  the  early 
missionaries  of  that  period  to  place  on  record  the 
fact  that  the  hostility  of  the  European  community 
a  century  ago  was  a  compliment  to  the  missiona- 
ries. Dr.  Carey  in  Calcutta  was  simply  Bunyan's 
pilgrim  in  a  modern  Yanit}^  Fair.  But  Dr.  Carey 
was  not  to  die  at  the  hands  of  his  enemies.  To 
him  and  his  associates  it  was  given  to  inaugurate 
a  movement  for  the  conversion  of  India  to  Chris- 
tianity, and  this  included  necessarily  the  reforma- 
tion of  the  base  worldlings  who  defied  God  and 
disgraced  the  Christian  name  in  Calcutta  and 
Bengal.  The  task  was  difficult  enough,  and 
required  many  long  and  weary  years,  but  so  far  as 
the  European  community  is  concerned,  Calcutta 
became  a  changed  city  before  the  middle  of  the 
century,  and  will  now  compare  very  favorably  with 
many  Western  cities.  But  Calcutta  does  not  stand 
alone  in  this  record.  All  over  India  the  personal 
influence  of  the  missionaries,  and  in  some  places 
their  pulpit  and  pastoral  influence,  have  greatly 
contributed  to  the  maintenance  of  a  correct  stand- 
ard of  morals  and  decent  respect  for  the  ordi- 


Kesults  239 

nances  of  the  Christian  religion.  The  task  of  the 
missionaries  is  not  only  to  win  the  teeming  mil- 
lions of  India  to  the  Christian  faith,  but  to  help  in 
making  India  worthy  of  a  place  among  the  Chris- 
tian empires  of  the  world. 

Among  the  healthy  movements  that  have  been  Brahmo- 
aroused  by  Christianity  are  the  various  samajes  or  *"^^^ 
societies  that  are  endeavoring  to  lead  the  people 
back  to  the  earlier  and  purer  days  of  their  Aryan 
forefathers.  Notable  among  these  attempts  has 
been  the  career  of  a  small,  but  intelligent  and 
devoted  band  of  reformers  in  Calcutta  popularly 
known  as  Brahmos.  The  founder  of  this  move- 
ment, Ram  Mohan  Roy,  was  a  man  of  character 
and  ability,  but  at  his  death  the  late  Keshub 
Chunder  Sen  became  its  great  leader  nearly  fifty 
years  ago,  and  in  the  year  1860  gave  the  name 
of  Brahmo-SamaJ  to  the  band  of  disciples  who 
rallied  about  him.  While  repudiating  much  of 
Hinduism,  these  leaders  tried  to  revive  the  teach- 
ings of  the  earliest  Yedic  writers.  They  also 
became  avowed  reformers,  and  by  their  public 
teachings  and  writings  succeeded  in  making  a 
marked  impression  upon  intelligent  Hindus, 
especially  in  Bengal;  but  thus  far  the  leaders  of 
the  movement  have  not  been  able  to  draw  around 
them  any  considerable  number  of  like-minded  per- 
sons. In  other  parts  of  the  country  they  have 
attracted  attention,  and  have  apparently  stimu- 
lated other  parties  to  take  up  the  work  of  reform. 


240        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

Arya-samaj  In  imitation  of  the  Brahmos,  Dyanand  Saras- 
vati  organized  the  xlrya-Samaj  in  northern  India, 
and  soon  gathered  aronnd  him  a  large  number  of 
followers.  They  adopted  a  profession  of  reform, 
but  are  less  liberal  than  the  Brahmos,  and,  unlike 
them,  vigorously  oppose  the  Christian  missiona- 
ries. They  usually  manifest  a  strong  partisan 
bias,  and  in  consequence  many  of  the  missionaries 
in  northern  India  refuse  to  cooperate  with  them 
in  reform  movements.  The  Arya-Samaj  leaders 
denounce  popular  idolatry,  and  many  of  them  are 
enlisted  in  a  crusade  against  child  marriage, 
enforced  widowhood,  and  other  social  abuses. 
Aside  from  all  other  considerations,  it  is  a  hopeful 
sign  to  see  any  class  of  the  Hindu  community 
encouraging  popular  reforms  such  as  these,  and 
whatever  the  immediate  effect  may  be,  no  one  can 
doubt  that  in  the  end  this  and  other  movements 
of  the  kind  will  prove  helpful  to  the  cause  of 
Christian  missions. 
Ko  San  Ye  Among  the  remarkable  innovations  is  that  of 
the  Baptist  Karen  Mission,  known  as  the  Ko  San 
Ye  Movement.  It  is  an  independent  work  manned 
by  native  Christians,  and  under  the  leadership  of 
Ko  San  Ye.  Previous  to  his  conversion  in  1880, 
he  was  a  leader  of  considerable  influence,  and 
although  not  educated,  he  has  demonstrated  extra- 
ordinary initiative  and  organizing  ability.  The 
work  is  conducted  at  twelve  centers,  some  magnifi- 
cent  buildings    have    been    erected,    and   it   has 


Movement 


Eesults  241  : 

resulted  in  adding  thousands  of  members  to  the  ; 

Karen  churches.     A  feature  of  the  enterprise  is  '. 
institutional,  and  involves  the  feeding  and  lodging 

of  the  people  who  visit  the  centers.     The  expense  . 

of  maintaining  this  work  is  largely  provided  by  j 

San  Ye's  followers,  but  a  generous  amount  is  con-  r 

tributed  by  heathen.    As  a  result,  Christianity  is  ^ 

attracting  the  entire  populace  of  lower  Burma,  ! 

and  there  is  a  need  for  great  wisdom  and  tact  on  ] 

the  part  of  the  missionaries  in  dealing  with  this  i 

movement.  j 
By  far  the  most  marvelous  movement  is  the   The  National      ; 
orsranization  of  the  National  Missionary  Society  Missionary         i 

.        ,       ,  .         Society  ; 

of  India,  which  marks  a  distmct  epoch  m  the  his-  : 
tory  of  missions.    Its  coming  has  not  been  unher-  • 
aided,  because   as  early   as   1860   there   was   an  : 
attempt  to  organize  a  National  Society  that  should  ' 
be  independent  of  foreign  management  and  sup-  ! 
port.    Local  movements  similar  to  the  Ko  San  Ye  ' 
movement  have  been  in  existence  in  several  parts 
of  India,  but  this  great  society  is  national  and  j 
interdenominational,  with  its  purpose  the  evan-  \ 
gelization  of  the  empire.     Delegates  representing  ; 
each  province  of  India  and  Ceylon  met  in  Carey's  j 
historic  library  at  Serampur,  on  Christmas  Day,  j 
1905.     In  the  old  pagoda,  where  Henry  Martyn 
pra5^ed    and    worked    for   the    evangelization    of 
India,  the   Constitution  of  the  new  society  was  » 
adopted.    The  organization  is  loyal  to  all  denomi- 
nations, solicits  no  contributions   outside  of  the  . 


242        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

empire,  and  lays  the  task  of  India's  evangelization 
upon  her  sons.  The  movement  is  governed  by  a 
council  of  sixty  representative  Indian  Christians, 
and  by  an  executive  committee  assisted  by  an 
advisory  board  of  experienced  missionaries. 
Already  the  organization  has  stimulated  some  of 
the  Christian  students  to  offer  themselves  as  pas- 
tors, and  Indian  Christians  are  consecrating  their 
sons  and  contributing  funds  for  the  evangelization 
of  their  own  people.  This  indigenous  missionary 
organization  under  the  leadership  of  Sir  Hanam 
Sing  as  president,  and  Mr.  Y.  S.  Azariah,  promises 
mighty  things  for  the  cause  of  Christ  in  the 
empire. 
Glorious  India  may  not  be  the  most  important  section  of 

the  globe,  but  it  presents  the  field  most  ripe  for  the 
sickle  of  the  missionary  reaper.  As  its  rich  har- 
vests are  garnered,  the  joyous  harvest  songs  of  the 
reaper  will  be  heard  around  the  globe,  and  the 
reapers  in  a  thousand  whitening  fields  in  other 
lands  will  take  up  the  strain,  and  even  heaven 
itself  join  in  the  most  sublime  chorus  of  praise 
which  has  been  heard  since  the  morning  stars 
sang  together  at  the  dawn  of  creation.  The 
mighty  work  of  saving  a  vast  empire  will  not  be 
completed  in  a  day,  or  a  month,  or  a  year,  or  a 
decade,  but  it  need  not  and  must  not  be  allowed 
to  drag  along  through  a  long  course  of  weary  cen- 
turies. All  great  movements  gain  momentum  if 
allowed  a  free  course.    If  history  seems  to  contra- 


Opportunity 


Results                              243  j 

i 

diet  this  statement,  it  is  because  it  so  often  hap-  j 

pens  that  due  care  is  not  taken  to  keep  the  course  | 

free  and  clear.    It  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  j 

no  men  and  women  on  earth  carry  a  more  weighty  j 

responsibility  and  yet  enjoy  a  richer  and  more  glo-  i 

rious  opportunity  than  the  chosen  few  who  hold  ! 
the  lines  of  advance  in  the  great  mission  field  of 

India.  : 

It  would  be  difficult  to  find  any  class,  caste,   Need  of  j 

tribe,  or  people  which  has  not  one  or  more  repre-   ^°^^^^^  \ 

sentatives  among  the  Christian  converts  of  this  ; 

land  of  promise.      The   call   for   laborers  which  ! 
India   sends    to   the    Christians   of   Europe   and 
America    is    one    which    embraces    all    kinds    of 

workers   for  a  field  which  needs   every  kind  of  ' 

labor.     Teachers  are  needed  for  pupils  of  every  > 

grade  from  the   kindergarten  to  the  university.  \ 

The  vernacular  preacher  of  the  first  generation  is  ^ 

giving  place  to  a  successor  with  a  literary  degree.  • 

Yery  recently  twenty-two  students  in  an  Indian  I 

college  volunteered  in   a  body   for  the  work  of  \ 

preachers  in  their  native  land.    The  daughters  of  j 

converts  who  in  former  days  lived  in  squalid  pov-  ■ 

erty  are  studying  in  college  halls   and  winning  j 

honors  which  will  give  them  distinction  through-  : 
out  the  empire.     In  short,  a  new  and  bright  day 

has  dawned  upon  India  and  God  is  co-operating  • 

with  his  servants  in  creating  agencies  which  will  : 
prove  sources  of  blessing  far  and  wide  through  the 

empire  for  years  and  generations  to  come.  i 


J4-1        The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 


Millions 
Waiting 


Time 
Auspicious 


In  her  most  palmy  days  Eome  ruled  over  only 
one  hundred  and  twenty  million  people,  while  in 
India  to-day  nearly  three  hundred  million  souls 
are  subject,  more  or  less  directly,  to  the  rule  of 
the  King-Emperor.  China  alone  among  the  great 
kingdoms  and  empires  of  the  world  can  compare 
with  India  in  population  at  the  beginning  of  this 
new  century,  and  this  splendid  realm  has  opened 
all  her  gates  and  doors  to  the  Christian  missionary. 
Instead  of  the  wretched  little  vessels  in  which 
Paul  coasted  around  the  Mediterranean  ports,  the 
Indian  missionary  has  floating  palaces  to  convey 
him  at  sea,  while  palatial  cars  await  him  when  he 
wishes  to  travel  by  land.  God  has  opened  his  path- 
way, to  even  the  most  remote  tribes,  while  a  sym- 
pathetic and  enlightened  government  protects  him 
from  hostile  persecution,  or  even  the  menace  of 
danger.  The  original  commission  to  evangelize 
the  nations  still  stands,  while  God,  who  rules  over 
all  nations,  sets  an  open  door  before  his  servants 
who  are  willing  to  enter  and  evangelize  the  wait- 
ing millions. 

The  time  is  auspicious,  and  the  missionaries  of 
India  should  not  lose  a  day  or  an  hour  in  sounding 
the  trumpet  for  a  great  forward  movement.  As 
Paul,  the  ideal  missionary  for  all  lands  and  all 
time,  aimed  first  for  Greece  and  next  for  Eome,  so 
should  the  missionaries  of  our  modern  day  aim  for 
all  the  great  centers  of  population,  commerce,  and 
political  rule  in  the  empire.    This  does  not  mean 


Eesults  245 

that  outlying  and  distant  places  are  to  be  neg- 
lected, but  only  that  the  great  centers  of  power  and 
influence  should  be  quickly  seized  and  strongly 
held.  A  wide  and  firm  grasp  is  needed.  The 
word  should  be  passed  all  along  the  line  that  India 
is  to  be  won  for  Christ,  and  that  the  greatest 
movement  ever  attempted  in  the  history  of  Chris- 
tianity is  now  at  hand.  Nothing  in  all  modern 
history,  nothing  since  the  day  of  Pentecost^  has 
been  equal  to  the  present  opportunity. 

The  old  may  rejoice  that  they  have  lived  to  see  Christian 
this  day,  but  the  young  may  rejoice  still  more  in  ^°"*i"^^* 
the  hope  of  seeing  a  day  when  a  million  souls  will 
be  found  inquiring  the  way  to  Zion  in  North 
India,  a  million  in  West  India,  a  million  more  in 
Burma,  and  still  a  million  more  in  South  India. 
A  million  ?  Why  not  ten  millions  ?  Why  not  the 
Christian  Conquest  of  India? 


QUESTIONS  FOR   CHAPTER  VIII 

Aim  :  To  Realize  the  Obligation  of  the  Church  fob 
THE  Christian  Conquest  of  India  in  View 
OF   Past   Achievements  and   Present 
Opportunities 

I. .  .Results  Achieved. 

1.  In  what  respect  is  the  possession  of  property  an 

important  asset  in  the  missionary  enterprise? 

2.  In  what  way   does  Christian  literature  supple- 

ment other  missionary  agencies? 


I 


246         The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

3.*  Compared  with  the  first  half  century,  how  do 
you  explain  the  more  rapid  progress  of  the 
last  half? 

4.  Do    you    consider    ordained    missionaries    more 

effective  agents  than  lay  missionaries? 

5.  How  do  you  account  for  the  rapid  advance  of 

work  among  women  in  India? 

6.  What  proportion  of  the  population  is  now  Chris- 

tian? 
7.*    Enumerate   some   of   the   conditions   necessary 

for  a  doubling  of  Christian  communicants  in 

India  during  the  next  decade. 
8.  What  religion  has  the  better  opportunity  for  the 

conquest    of    India,    Christianity,    or    Moham- 
medanism? 
9.*    Do   you   think   that   the   neutral    rule   of  the 

British  government   is   an   aid   to   missionary 

work?     Why? 

10.  In  what  way  is  the  work  of  Christianity 
strengthened  by  strong  Indian  leaders? 

11.  To  what  extent  will  the  improved  social  life 
and  increased  intelligence  among  the  Indian 
Christians  affect  the  non-Christian  people? 

12.*  How  will  foreign  missionary  work  done  by 
Indian  Christians  stimulate  the  Christian 
Church  in  India? 

II. .  .Present   Opportunities. 

13.*   What  advantages  of  freedom  for  missionary 

work  has  India  as  compared  with  China? 
14.*  To  what  extent  do  you  think  the  organization 

and    cooperation    of    Indian    Christians    will 

hasten  the  extension  of  Christianity? 
15.  How  much  do  you  think  the  reforming  bodies 

in  the  native  religions  will  assist  Christianity 

among  the  people? 


Eesults  247 

16.  What  particular  help  will  the  cooperation  of 
Christian  Europeans  in  official  and  business 
positions,  be  to  the  cause  of  missions? 

17.*  Do  you  consider  India  more  ripe  for  imme- 
diate conquest  than  any  other  of  the  great 
non-Christian  countries?     Why? 

18.*  Where  do  you  think  the  greatest  obstacles  are 
to  the  Evangelization  of  India?     Why? 

19.*  How  can  we  in  the  homeland  hasten  the  Chris- 
tian conquest  of  India? 


Refeeences  for  Advanced  Study. — Chapter  VIII 
. .  Testimonies  Concerning  the  Work  of  Missions. 

Beach:   India  and  Christian  Opportunity,  269-276. 

Curtis:  Modern  India,  XXVIII. 

Liggins:  The  Great  Value  and  Success  of  Foreign 
Missions,  94-111. 

Stock:   A  Short  Handbook  of  Missions,  112-115. 

Students  and  the  Modern  Missionary  Crusade,  Re- 
port of  the  Nashville  Convention,  1906,  131-141. 


II . . .  Success  of  Missions. 

Clough:  Tales  of  a  Telugu  Pariah  Tribe,  285-301. 
Cochrane:  Among  the  Burmans,  XIII. 
Griflan:   India,  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal,  XIV. 
Jones:   India's  Problem:    Krishna  or  Christ,  XI. 
Pierson:    The   Miracles   of   Missions,   First    Series 

III,  VIII. 
Pierson:   The  Miracles  of  Missions,  Fourth  Series, 

IV. 
Stover:   India  a  Problem  (Telugu),  XIII. 
Young:   The  Success  of  Christian  Missions,  IV. 


/348         The  Christian  Conquest  of  India 

III. .  .Native   Christians. 
Dyer:  Pandita  Ramabai,  VII,  VIII. 
Mateer:    The  Gospel  in  South  India,  VIII,  X,  XI, 

XIV. 
Pierson:    The  Miracles  of  Missions,   Third   Series, 

XTII. 
Stock:    Notes   on   India   for   Missionary    Students, 

93-99. 


APPENDIXES 


Appendix  A 


251 


APPENDIX  A 
CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE 


1500  B.  C.  to  900  B.  C. 
900  B.  C.  to  1200  A.  D. 
543  B.  C.  to  900  A.  D. 
400  B.  C.  to 
508  B.  C. 
327  B.  C. 

250  B.  C. 


161  B.  C. 

100  B.  C.  to  500  A. 

500  A.  D. 


D. 


640-1300  A. 
1001  A.  D. 


D. 


1000-1765  A.  D. 

1260  A.  D. 
1321  A.  D. 
1370  A.  D. 

1398  A.  D. 
1498  A.  D. 

1500  A.  D. 
1500-1600  A.  D. 

1525-1857  A.  D. 
1542  A.  D. 


Period  of  Vedism. 
Period  of  Brahmanism. 
Period  of  Buddhism. 
Period  of  Modern  Hinduism. 
Persian  Invasion  under  Darius. 
Greek  Invasion  under  Alexander 

the  Great. 
Asoka    establishes    Buddhism    as 

state  religion. 
Bactrian  Invasion. 
Sc}'thian  or  Tartar  Invasions. 
Nestorian     Missions     in     Central 

Asia. 
Islam  Supreme  in  Western  Asia. 
First     Invasion     of     Punjab     by 

Mahmud  of  Ghazni. 
Mohammedan  Invasions  and  Rule 

of  Islam. 
Franciscan  Missions  in  Asia. 
The  Four  Martyrs  of  Thana. 
Tamerlane's    conquest     sweeps 

Christianity  from  Central   Asia. 
Tamerlane  invades  India. 
Portuguese  Expedition  under  Vas- 

co  da  Gama. 
First  Portuguese  Missionaries. 
Portuguese  monopoly   of  Oriental 

trade. 
Mogul  Empire. 
Francis  Xavier. 


252  Appendix  A 


1556  A.  D.  Akbar  the  Great. 

1560  A.  D.  Introduction    of    the    Inquisition 

into  Portuguese  Missions  at  Goa. 

1600  A.  D,  Akbar,  a  Patron  of  Christianity. 

1600-1857  British  East  India  Company  main- 

tains mihtary  and  commercial 
power. 

1602  A.  D.  Dutch  East  India  Company  found- 

ed. 

1602-1642  A.  D.  Dutch  Protestant  Missions  estab- 

lished. 

1604  A.  D.  The  French  enter  India. 

1606  A.  D.  Robert  de  Nobili,  Jesuit  Mission- 

ary in  India. 

1658-1707  A.  D.  Aurungzeb. 

1681  A.  D.  First  English  Church  founded. 

1698  A.  D.  East    India    Company's    Charter 

enjoins  the  provision  of  chap- 
lains. 

1705  A.  D.  First  Danish  Lutheran  Missionary, 

Ziegenbalg  appointed. 

1705  A.  D.  King    of     Denmark     sends     first 

Protestant  missionaries  to  India. 

1709  A.  D.  First  English  contribution  to  Mis- 

sions in  India— £20— by  S.  P.G. 
members  of  Danish  Mission. 

1739-1761  A.  D.  Afghan  Invasion  and  Sack  of  Delhi 

1750  A.  D.  Schwartz,  "the  Christian,"  arrives 

in  India. 

1757  A.  D.  Lord    Clive's   victory    at    Plassey 

establishes  British  Empire  in 
India. 

1758  A.  D.  '    Kiernander  goes    to    Calcutta   in 

1771,    builds    "  Old    Church.' 
1792  A.  D.  Formation  of  Baptist  Missionary 

Society  in  England. 


Appendix  A  253 

1793  A.  D.  William  Carey  sails  for  Calcutta^ 

1793  A.  D.  East    India    Company's    Charter 

renewed      with       Wilberforce's 

pious  clauses  defeated. 
1793-1813  A.  D.  Active   opposition   of  East   India 

Company  to  the  spread  of  the 

gospel. 
1800  A.  D.  First  Hindu  Convert  baptised  by 

Carey. 
1806  A.  D.  Henry  Martyn  arrives  in  India. 

1811  A.  D.  Baptism  of  Abdul  Masih. 

1812  A.  D.  First  American  Missionaries.    Bur- 

ma and  Bombay. 

1813  A.  D.  East  India  Charter  renewed  with 

Wilberforce's  pious  clauses  in- 
serted. 
1825  A.  D.  Bishop     Heber     ordains     Abdul 

Masih,  H.  Martyn's  convert 
from  Islam,  first  native  clergy- 
man in  India.  S.  P.  G.  takes 
over  S.  P.  C.  K.  Missions  in 
southern  India. 

1829  A.  D.  Abolition  of  suttee  by  Lord    W» 

W.  Bentinck.  First  Scotch  Mis- 
sionaries to  India,  Alexander 
Duff  and  John  Wilson. 

1830  A.  D.  John   Devasagayam,    first   native 

clergyman  in  southern  India,  or- 
dained. 

1833  A.  D.  British  Government  declares  itself 

neutral  regarding  introduction 
of  Christianity. 

1834  A.  D,  Basel  Mission  in  Malabar. 

1837  A.  D.  Sir  P.  Maitland  resigns  command 

of  the  Madras  Army  rather  than 
salute  the  idols. 


254  Appendix  A 

1846  A.  D.  Gossner's  Mission,  Chota  Nagpure., 

1850  A.  D.  First  Medical  Mission. 

1853  A.  D.  First     Railway    train     in    India, 

April  16. 

1854  A.  D.  Sir  C.  Wood's  dispatch  on  Educa- 

tion in  India. 

1857  A.  D.  Sepoy  Mutiny,  and  Dissolution  of 

East  India  Company. 

1858  A.  D.  Government  of  India  transferred 

to  the  Crown. 

1859  A.  D.  First  Call  for  Week  of  Prayer. 
1864-1869  A.  D.  John  Lawrence  Viceroy  of  India, 
1866  A.  D.  Keshub  Chunder  Sen's  Lecture  on 

Christ,  May  5.  Imad-ud-din 
baptized  April  29,  1868.  or- 
dained Dec.  6. 

1870-1880  A.  D.  Great  ingathering  of  Telugus. 

1872  A.  D.  First  General  Missionary  Confer- 

ence,    Allahabad. 

1877  A.  D.  Queen    Victoria    proclaimed    Em= 

press  of  India.  Cambridge  Delhi 
Mission  begun. 

1880  A.  D.  Oxford  Mission  to  Calcutta. 

1886  A.  D.  The  Student  Volunteer  Movement 

at  Northfield,  Mass. 

1896  A.  D.  Formation  of  Student    Volunteer 

Movement  of  India  and  Ceylon. 

1905  A.  D.  Organization  of  the  National  Mis- 

sionary Society  of  India. 


APPENDIX  B 

Bibliography 


HISTORICAL 
Andrew,  W.  P.,  India  and  Her  Neighbors.     Allen  & 

Co.,  London,  15s. 
Cox,    Sir    G.    W.,    History   of    the   Establishment    of 

British  Rule  in  India.     Longmans,  Green  &  Co., 

New  York,  60c.,  net. 
Cunningham,    H.    S.,   British   India    and    Its   Rulers. 

Allen  &  Co.,  London,  2s. 
Dutt,  R.  C,  Ancient  India.     Longmans,  Green  &  Co., 

New  York.  $1. 
Eden,  C.  H.,  India,  Historical  and  Descriptive.    Ward, 

London,  3s.  6d. 
Encyclopoedia  Britannica,  Vol.  xii.,   art.     India    (Sir 

W.  W.  Hunter). 
Frazer,  R.  W.,  British  Rule  in  India.    G.  P.  Putnam's 

Sons,  New  York,  $1.50. 
Hodgson,   B.    H.,   Aborigines   of  India.     Williams   & 

Norgate,  London,  9s. 
Hunter,  Sir  W.  W.,  Brief  History  of  the  Indian  Peo- 
ple's.    Charles   Scribner's  Sons,  New  York,  90c., 

net. 
,  England's  Work  in  India.     Smith  &  Elder, 

London,  Is. 
,  The  Indian  Empire.    2  vols.    Charles  Scrib- 
ner's Sons,  New  York,  $11,20,  net. 
Kaye  and  Malleson,   History  of  the  Indian  Mutiny. 

Allen  &  Co.,  London,  6  vols.,  £1.  16s. 

255 


256  Appendix  B 

Keene,  H.  G.,  The  Fall  of  the  Moghul  Empire.    Allen 

&  Co.,  London,  10s.  6d. 
Mcfarlane,  C,  History  of  British  India.     Routledge, 

London.     3s.  6d. 
Malcolm,  J.,  Political  History  of  India.    Murray,  Lon- 
don, 2  vols.,  £1.  12s. 
Malleson,  G.  B.,  The  Decisive  Battles  of  India.    Allen 

&  Co.,  London,  7s.  6d. 
Saville,    B.    "W.,    How    India   Was    Won.      Hodder    & 

Stoughton,  London,  5s. 
Seeley,  The  Expansion  of  England.    Little,  Brown  & 

Co.,  Boston,  ?1,75. 
Wheeler,   .7.  Talboys,   Short  History  of  India.     Mao- 

millan  &  Co.,  New  York,  $3.50. 


RELIGIONS 

Ballantyne,    James   R.,   Christianity   Compared    with 

Hindu  Philosophy.     Madden,  London,  8s.  6d. 
Barrows,    J.    H.,    World's    Parliament    of    Religions. 

George  M.  Hill  &  Co.,  New  York.    2  vols.,  $5. 
Barth,    Religions    of   India.      Triibner,    London.      2d 

edition,  16s. 
Bose,   R.    C,   Brahmoism;    or.    History   of  Reformed 

Hinduism,    Funk    &    Wagnalls    Co.,    New    York, 

$1.25. 
Burrell,  D.   J.,   The  Religions  of  the  World.     Pres., 

Book  Publ.,  Philadelphia,  $1.25. 
Davids,  T.  W.  Rhys.,  Buddhist  India.    G.  P.  Putnam's 

Sons,  New  York,  $1.35,  net. 
Ellinwood,  F.  F.,  Oriental  Religions  and  Christianity. 

Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  New  York,  $1.75. 
Grant,   G.  M.,  The  Religions  of  the  World  in  Rela- 
tion   to    Christianity.      F.    H.    Reveil    Co.,    New 

York.  40c. 


Appendix  B  257 

Hall,  Charles  Cuthbert,  Christian  Belief  Interpreted 
by  Christian  Experience.  F.  H.  Revell  Co.,  New 
York,  $1.50. 

Hall,  Charles  Cuthbert,  The  Universal  Elements  of 
the  Christian  Religion.  F.  H.  Revell  Co.,  New 
York,  $1.25. 

Hopkins,  Edward  Washburn,  The  Religions  of  India, 
Ginn  &  Co.,  Boston,  $2. 

Howard,  E.,  Studies  in  Non-Christian  Religions.  So- 
ciety for  the  Propagation  of  Christian  Knowl= 
edge,  London,  2s.  6d. 

Islam  and  Christianity;  or.  The  Koran  and  the  Bible. 
By  a  missionary.  American  Tract  Society,  New 
York,  fl. 

Jones,  J.  P.,  India's  Problem:  Krishna  or  Christ 
P.  H.  Revell  Co.,  New  York,  $1.50. 

Kellogg,  S.  H.,  A  Handbook  of  Comparative  Religions. 
Student  Volunteer  Movement,  New  York,  75c. 

Leigh,  H.  S.,  Religions  of  the  World.  Triibner,  Lon- 
don, 2s.  6d. 

Menzies,  Allan,  History  of  Religion.  Charles  Scrite- 
ner's  Sons,  New  York,  $1.50. 

Mitchell,  J.  Murray,  The  Great  Religions  of  India. 
F.  H.  Revell  Co.,  New  York,  $1.50. 

Mitchell,  J.  M.,  Hinduism  Past  and  Present  Re- 
ligious Tract  Society,  London,  4s. 

Miiller,  F.  Max,  Origin  and  Growth  of  Religion. 
Smith  &  Elder,  London,  9s. 

Miiiler,  F.  Max,  Origin  and  Growth  of  ReligioBc 
Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  London,  10s.  6d. 

„ ,    Natural    Religions.      Longmans,    Green    & 

Co.,  New  York,  $1.75. 

Non-Christian  Religions  of  the  World.  Religioiss 
Tract  Society,  London,  2s.  6d. 


258  Appendix  B 

Non-Christian  Religious  Systems:  Hinduism.  So- 
ciety for  the  Propagation  of  Christian  Knowl- 
eldge,  London,   2s.  6d. 

Padfield,  Rev.  J.  E.,  Hindu  at  Home.  Simpkin,  Lon- 
don, 3s.  6d. 

Religions  of  Missions  Fields  as  Viev/ed  by  Protestant 
Misionaries.  Student  Volunteer  Movement,  New 
York,  50c. 

Religious  Systems  of  the  World.  E.  P.  Button  &  Co., 
New  York,  $2.50. 

Sen,  Keshub  Chunder,  The  Brahmo-Samaj.  Allen  & 
Co.,  London,  2s. 

Shedd,  William  Ambrose,  Islam  and  The  Oriental 
Churches.  Pres.  Board  of  Publication,  Phila- 
delphia, $1.25,  net. 

Thornton,  D.  M.,  Parsi,  Jain,  and  Sikh.  Religious 
Tract  Society,  London,  2s. 

Vaughan,  J.,  The  Trident,  the  Cresent  and  the  Cross. 
Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  London,  9s.  6d. 

Wilkins,  W.  J.,  Modern  Hinduism.  T.  Fisher  Unwin, 
London,  16s. 

Yv''illiams,  Sir  W.  Monier,  Hinduism.  E.  S.  Gorham, 
New  York,  73c. 

Williams,  Sir  W.  Monier,  Brahmanism  and  Hindu- 
ism.    Macmillan  &  Co.,  New  York,  $3.50. 

Zwemer,  S.  M.,  The  Moslem  Doctrine  of  God.  Ameri- 
can Tract  Society,  New  York,  45c. 


GENERAL 

Allen,  William  O.  B.,  and  McClure,  Edmund,  Two 
Hundred  Years.  Society  for  the  Propagation  of 
Christian  Knowledge,  London,  10s,  6d. 

Barnes,  Irene,  H.,  Behind  the  Pardah.  Marshall 
Bros.,  London,  3s.  6d. 


Appendix  B  25^ 

Barrett,  R.  N.,  The  Child  of  the  Ganges.  F.  H.  Revell 
Co.,  New  York,  $1. 

Beach,  H.  P.,  India  and  Christian  Opportunity.  Stu- 
dent Volunteer  Movement,  New  York.     50c. 

Bose,  Ram  Chandra,  Hindoos  as  They  Are.  Stand- 
ford,  London,  7s.  6d. 

Bunker,  Alonzo,  Soo  Thah.  F.  H.  Revell  Co.,  New 
York,  $1. 

Butler,  W.,  The  Land  of  the  Veda.  Eaton  &  Mains, 
New  York,  $2. 

Carmichael,  Amy  Wilson,  Things  As  They  Are:  Mis- 
sion Work  in  Southern  India.  F.  H.  Revell  Co., 
New  York,  $1. 

Chamberlain,  Jacob,  in  the  Tiger  Jungle.  F.  H. 
Revell  Co.,  New  York,  $1. 

Chamberlain,  Jacob,  The  Cobra's  Den.  F.  H.  Revell 
Co.,  New  York,  $1. 

Clark,  R.,  The  Missions  in  the  Punjab  and  Sindh. 
Church  Missionary  Society,  London,  3s.  lOd. 

Clough,  E.  R.,  While  Sewing  Sandals:  Tales  of  a 
Telugu  Pariah  Tribe.  F.  H.  Revell  Co.,  New 
York,  $1.50. 

Cochrane,  Henry  Park,  Among  the  Burmans.  F.  H. 
Revell  Co.,  New  York,  $1.25. 

Compton,  Herbert,  Indian  Life  in  Town  and  Country. 
G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  New  York,  $2.25. 

Crook,  W.,  Northwest  Provinces  of  India.  Methuen 
&  Co.,  London,  10s.  6d. 

Curtis,  William  Eleroy,  Modern  India.  F.  H.  Revell 
Co.,  New  York,  $2. 

Denning,  M.  B.,  Mosaics  from  India.  F.  H.  Revell 
Co.,  New  York,  $1.25. 

Decennial  Missionary  Conference,  Report  of  the 
Third,  held  in  Bombay.    2  vols.,  $4,  net. 


260  Appendix  B 

Decennial  Missionary  Conference,  Report  of  the 
Fourth,  Madras,  1902.  Christian  Literature  So- 
ciety, London. 

Donning,  David,  The  History  of  the  Telugu  Mission. 
American  Baptist  Publication  Society,  Phila- 
delphia, 75c. 

Duff,  Dr.  Alexander,  India  and  Indian  Missions. 
Groombridge,  Edinburgh,  12s. 

Fuller,  M.  B.,  The  Wrongs  of  Indian  Womanhood, 
F.  H.  Revell  Co.,  New  York,  $1.25. 

Gordon,  A.,  Our  India  Missions.  United  Presbyterian 
Board  of  Publication,  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  $1.50,  net. 

Griffin,  Z.  F.,  India  and  Daily  Lif«  in  Bengal.  Morn- 
ing Star  Publishing  House,  Boston,  $1. 

Guinness,  Lucy  E.,  Across  India  at  the  Dawn  of  the 
Twentieth  Century.  F.  H.  Revell  Co.,  New  York, 
$1.50. 

Guinness,  Lucy  E.,  New  Year's  Eve,  1900:  An  Indian 
Dream.    Marshall  Bros.,  London,  2s. 

Harband,  Beatrice  M.,  Daughters  of  Darkness  in 
Sunny  India.     F.  H.  Revell  Co.,  New  York,  $1. 

Harband,  Beatrice  M.,  Pen  of  Brahma.  F.  H.  Revell 
Co.,  New  York,  $1.25,  net. 

Harband,  Beatrice  M.,  Under  the  Shadow  of  Durgam- 
ma. 

Hewlett,  Miss  S.  S.,  Daughters  of  the  King.  Nisbet, 
London,  5s. 

Hopkins  S.,  Armstrong,  Within  the  Purdah.  Eaton 
&  Mains,  New  York,  $1.25. 

Hmme,  Robert  A.,  Missions  from  the  Modern  View. 
F.  H.  Revell  Co.,  New  York,  $1.25. 

Humphrey,  J.  L.,  Twenty-one  Years  in  India.  Eaton 
&  Mains,  New  York,  $1. 

Hunter,  R.,  History  of  Missions  of  Free  Church  of 
Scotland  in  India  and  Africa.  Nelson,  London, 
3s.  6d. 


Appendix  B  261 

Hurst,    J.   F.,    Indika.     Harper   &   Bros.,   New   York, 

$3.75. 
Jackson,  John,  Lepers.     Marshall  Bros.,  London,  3s. 

6d. 
Karney,    Evelyn    S.,   and   Winifrede    W.    S.    Walden, 

The  Shining  Land.     Church  of  England  Zenana 

Missionary  Society,  London,  6d.,  net. 
Lilly,  W.  S.,  India  and  Its  Problems.     E.  P.  Button 

&  Co.,  New  York,  $3. 
Lyall,  A.  C,  Asiatic  Studies.    Charles  Scribner's  Sons, 

New  York,  $3.60. 
Mason,  Caroline  Atwater,  The  Little  Green  God.     P, 

H.  Revell  Co.,  New  York,  75c. 
Mason,   Caroline   Atwater,   Lux   Christi:    An   Outline 

Study  of  India.     Macmillan,  New  York,  90c. 
Mateer,    S.,   The   Gospel   in   South   India.     Religious 

Tract  Society,  London,  3s.  6d. 
Maxwell,  Ellen  Blackmar,   The  Bishop's  Conversion, 

Eaton  &  Mains,  New  York,  $1.50. 
Mitchell,  J.  Murray,  Once  Hindu,  now  Christian.     F. 

H.  Revell  Co.,  New  York,  75c. 
Pitman,    E.    R.     (Mrs.),     Indian    Zenana    Missions. 

Snow,  London,  6d. 
Powell,  B.  H.  Baden,  The  Origin  and  Growth  of  Vil- 

lage  Communities  in  India.     Charles  Scribner's 

Sons,  New  York,  ?1. 
Protestant   Missions   in   Burma   and   Ceylon:    Statis- 
tical Tables.     Baptist  Mission  Press,  Calcutta. 
Ramabai,    Pandita,    The   High-Caste    Hindu  Women, 

F.  H.  Revell  Co.,  New  York,  75c. 
Rice,  H.,  Native  Life  in  South  India:  Being  Sketches 

of  the  Social  and  Religious  Characteristics  of  the 

Hindus.     Religious  Tract  Society,  London,  2s.  6d. 
Rowe,   A.   D.,   Every-Day   Life   in   India.     Americas 

Tract  Society,  New  York,  $1.50. 


262  Appendix  B 

Russell,  Norman,  Village  Work  in  India.  F.  H.  Revell 
Co.,  New  York,  $1,  net. 

St.  Clair-Tisdall,  W.,  India.  Student  Volunteer 
Missionary  Union,  London,  Is.  6d. 

Scott,  J.  E.,  In  Famine  Land.  Harper  &  Bros.,  New 
York,  $2.50,  net 

Scott,  T.  J.,  Missionary  Life  Among  the  Villages  in 
India.     Eaton  &  Mains,  New  York,  $1.75. 

Sherring,  M.  A.,  History  of  Protestant  Missions  in 
India.     Religious  Tract  Society,  London,  6s. 

Smith,  George,  Conversion  of  India.  F.  H.  Revell 
Co.,  New  York,  $1.50. 

Stewart,  R.,  Life  and  Work  in  India.  Pearl  Pub.  Co., 
Philadelphia. 

Stevens,  G.  W.,  In  India.  Dodd,  Mead  &  Co.,  New 
York,  $1.50. 

Stock,  Eugene,  History  of  the  Church  Missionary  So- 
ciety.    Church  Missionary  Society.  12s.  6d. 

Storrow,  E.,  Our  Sisters  in  India.  F.  H.  Revell  Co., 
New  York,  $1.25. 

Stover,  W.  B.,  India  a  Problem.  Brethren  Publishing 
House,  Elgin,  111.,  $1.25. 

Temple,  Sir  Richard,  India  in  1880.  2  vols.,  Allen  & 
Co.,  London,  16s. 

Temple,  Sir  Richard,  A  Bird's-Eye  View  of  Pictur- 
esque India.     F.  H.  Revell  Co.,    New  York,  $2. 

Thoburn,  J.  M.,  India  and  Malaysia.  Eaton  &  Mains, 
New  Y'ork.    $1.50. 

Thoburn,  J.  M.,  Light  in  the  East.  Eaton  &  Mains, 
New  York,  50c. 

Various  Authors,  Empire  Builders.  Church  Mission- 
ary Society,  London,  Is.  6d. 

Wilder,  Robert  P.,  Among  India's  Students.  F.  H. 
Revell  Co.,  New  York,  30c. 

Williams,  Sir  M.  Monier,  Modern  India  and  the  In- 
dians.    Triibner,  London,  14s. 


Appendix  B  363 

BIOGRAPHICAL 

Birks,  Rev.  Herbert,  Bishop  T.  V.  Frencli.    Murray, 

London,  30s, 
Butler,  Clementina,  William  Butler.    Eaton  &  Mains, 

New  York,  $1. 
Carus-Wilson,  Mrs.  Ashley,  Irene  Petrie,  A  Woman's 

Life  for  Kashmir.     F.  H.  Revell  Co.,  Ngw  York, 

$1.50. 
Dyer,  Helen  S.,  Pandita  Ramabai:  The  Story  of  Her 

Life.     F.  H.  Revell  Co.,  New  York,  $1.25. 
Elmslie,    Mrs.,    William    Jackson    Elmslie,    Memoir, 

Seedtime  in  Kashmir.     Nisbet,  London,  Is. 
Farwell,  Mary  E.,  William  Carey.     F.  H.  Revell  Co., 

New  York,  30c.,  net. 
Fox,    Rev.   G.    T.,    Rev.    Henry   Watson    Fox.      New 

Edition.    Religious  Tract  Society,  London,  3s.  6d. 
Gracey,    Mrs.    J.    T.,    Eminent    Missionary    Women. 

Eaton  &  Mains,  New  York,  85c. 
Grey-Edwards,    Rev.   A.    H.,    Memoir   of   Rev.    John 

Thomas    (of  Tinnevelli),  Elliot  Stock,  5s. 
Holcomb,  Helen  H.,  Men  of  Might  in  India  Missions. 

F.  H.  Revell  Co.,  New  York,  $1.25. 
Jackson,   J.,  Mary  Reed,   Missionary  to  the  Lepers. 

F.  H.  Revell  Co.,  New  York,  75c. 
Johnston,  Julia  H.,  Adoniram  Judson.    F.  H.  Revell 

Co.,  New  York,  30c. 
Judson,  Edward,  Adoniram  Judson.     American  Bap- 
tist Publishing  Society,   Philadelphia,   $1.25. 
Lewis.  Rev.  A.,  G.  M.  Gordon,  "The  Pilgrim  Mission- 
ary of  the  Punjab."     Church  Missionary  Society. 

2s.  6d. 
Messmore,  J.  H.,  The  Life  of  Edwin  Wallace  Parker, 

Eaton  &  Mains,  New  York,  $1. 
Monteflore,   Arthur,  Reginald  Heber.     F.  H.  Revell 

Co.,  New  York,  75c. 


264  Appendix  B 

Myers,  Rev.  John  B.,  William  Carey,  the  Shoemaker 
who  Became  "The  Father  and  Founder  of  For- 
eign Missions."    F.  H.  Revell  Co.,  New  York,  75c. 

Rhea,  Mrs.  Sarah  J.,  Henry  Martyn.  F.  H.  Revell 
Co.,  New  York.     30c. 

Sargent,  Rev.  John,  Henry  Martyn.  New  edition. 
Seelej^  London,  2s.  6d. 

Smith,  G.,  Bishop  R.  Heber.  John  Murray,  Lon- 
don, 10s.  6d. 

Smith,  G.,  Henry  Martyn,  Saint  and  Scholar.  F.  H. 
Revell  Co.,  New  York,  $3. 

Smith,  George.  Twelve  Indian  Statesmen.  Thomas 
Nelson  &  Sons,  New  York,  $3.50. 

Smith,  George,  Twelve  Pioneer  Missionaries. 
Thomas  Nelson  &  Sons,  New  York,  $3.50. 

Smith,  G.,  William  Carey.  John  Murray,  London, 
7s.  6d. 

Smith,  G.,  Alexander  Duff.  Hodder  &  Stoughton, 
London,  6s. 

Smith,  G.,  John  Wilson:  Philanthropist.  John  Mur- 
ray, London,  9s. 

Thoburn,  J.  M.,  Life  of  Isabella  Thoburn.  Eaton  & 
Mains,  New  York,  $1.25. 

Termilye,  Elizabeth  B.,  Alexander  Duff.  F.  H.  Re- 
vell Co.,  New  York,  30c. 


Appendix  C 


265 


APPENDIX    C 


RULES  FOR  PROXUXCIATIOX 


Vowels  and  Diphthongs 

a  has  the 

sound 

of  li 

in  fun 

a    "     " 

"  a 

in  father 

e    "     " 

"  e 

in  they 

i     "     " 

"    i 

in  pin 

Y       a       a 

"   % 

in  machine 

O      "       " 

"    0 

in  note 

11      "       " 

"    Xi 

in  pull 

u      "       " 

'•  w 

in  rule 

ai   "     " 

"  e 

in  file 

au  "     " 

"    OIU 

in  owl 

Consonants 
k,  kh  has  the  sound  of  ch  in  loch  in  Scotch  and  Buch  in  German 
t    has  the  sound  of  t  in  toy 
d    has  the  sound  of  d  in  day 

t     has  a  peculiar  th  sound  —  half-way  between  the  English  t  in 

toy  and  th  in  this 
u    is  nasal 
r    is  a  slurred  r   as  r  in  French  words 


266 


Appendix  D 


APPENDIX  D 


GLOSSARY 

A  list  of  words,  with  pronunciation  and  definition,  found  in  books 
on  India,  In  some  cases  the  pronunciation  is  omitted  because 
the  English  is  the  same  as  the  Indian. 


Agni     Ag-ni 

God  of  fire 

Aiyo     Ai-yo 

Alas !  Ai  runs  together  almost  like 

eye.     The   word 

is    repeated   rapidly.  Eye-eye  Yo  Eye- 

eye-Yo ! 

Amin     A-min 

Head  of  district. 

Amma     Am-ma 

Mother!      (vocative     case).     A    is 

pronounced  like 

u  in   up.      The  word  is  also  used  by 

all  women  in  speaking  to  each  other,  and  by  girls  in  speak- 

ing to  women. 

Ammal     Am-mal 

Lady   or  woman.    A  is  pronounced 

like  u  in  up. 

Anna 

Two  cents. 

Areca  Nut 

Nut     eaten    by    the    Indians    with 

betel  leaf  or  lime. 

Ayah     A-yah 

Nurse. 

Babu     Ba-bu 

English-speaking  native  gentleman. 

Bajjan     Bha-jan 

Hymn. 

Bakshish  Bak-shlsh 

Fee,  gratuity.                      ^ 

Bandy 

A  bullock  cart. 

Bazar     Ba-zar 

Street  in  which  are  shops. 

Begum    Be-gam 

A  Mohammedan  princess. 

Bhisti     Bhish-tl 

Water  carrier. 

Bibi    Bi-bi 

Wife. 

Bulbul     Bul-bul 

Indian  nightingale. 

Bungalow 

European  residence. 

Bunghis  Bang-hi 

Sweepers  ;     the  lowest  caste. 

Bunnia   Ban-nl-a 

Shopkeeper  or  storekeeper. 

Betel 

Leaf  of  a  creeper. 

Brahma    Brah-ma 


Appendix  D  267 

The  first  person  in  the  Hindu  Triad, 
regarded  as  the  Creator, 
Brahman  Brah-man  The  highest  of  the  Hindu  castes. 

Eramo  Samaj  Brah-mo  Sa-maj  A  sect  of  Hindu  reformers 
who  honor  Christ  as  a  man,  but  who  reject  him  as  a 
Saviour. 

Leather  workers. 

Attendant,  messenger. 

Portable  bedstead. 

Exclamation  of  derision,  disgust,  or 
remonstrance. 

Disciple. 

Pipe. 

Written  testimonial  or  message. 

Unleavened  bread,  universally  used. 

Muslin  covering  for  the  head. 

A  piece  of  ground  surrounding  a 
house. 

A  paid  laborer.  Coolie  is  the   Tamil 


€hamars     Cha-mars 
Chaprassi     Chap-ras-sl 
Charpoy     Char-pa-i 
Chee     Chi 

Chela     Che-la 
Chilam     Chi-lam 
Chit     Chit 
Chopatti     Cha-pat-ti 
Chuddar     Chad-dar 
Compound 


€oolie 

word  for  pay. 
Crore     Ka-ror 
Curry 


Ten  millions. 

A  preparation  of  meat  or  vegetables 
made  by  grinding  various  condiments  and  mixing  them 
together. 


Dak     Dak 
Dandy 
Dervish 
Deva    De-v2 
Dhobi     Dho-bl 
Diwan  or  Divan 
Durbar  or  Darbar 
Fakeer     Fa-kir 


The  post,  the  relay  of  men. 

Conveyance  carried  by  coolies. 

Mohammedan  fanatic. 

God. 

Washerman, 

A  council. 

Court  reception. 

Religious  beggar. 


Ganesa  or  Ganesha  Gan-esh  The  god  of  wisdom. 
Garri     Gar-rl  A  carriage. 


268 


Appendix  J) 


Ghee 

Ghl 

Guru 

Gu-ru 

Hadji 

Ha-ji 

made  the  pilgrim; 

Hakim 

I     Ha-kim 

Hanuman      Han-u-man 

Eowdah 

Iyer 

Kali 

Ka-li 

Karma 

I     Kar-ma 

dhistic. 

Ghat     Ghat  A  quay  or  flight  of  steps  leading  to 

the  water.     Also  a  steep  mountain  side. 
Clarified  butter. 
Religious  teacher. 

A  Mohammedan  gentleman  who  has 

to  Mecca. 

Physician. 

Monkey  god. 

Seat  used  for  riding  elephants. 

Title  given  to  Brahmans  and  Gurus. 

A  goddess,  the  wife  of  Shiva. 

The  law   of  consequences.       Bud- 

Khitmutgar  Khid-mat-gar  A  servant  or  butler,  usually  Mo- 
hammedan. 

Kismet     Kismat  Destiny. 

Kowree     Kau-rl  A  small  white  shell  used  for  money 

among  the  poorest  people. 

Krishna     Krishna 
Lakh     Lakh 
Lama     La-ma 
Lascar 
Lat    Lat 
Lota    L6-ta 
Madrissah     Mad-ris-sah 
Maha     Ma-ha 
Mahadeva     Ma-ha-de-va 
Mahajan     Ma-ha-jau 
Mahatma     Ma-hat-ma 
Maidan     Mai-dan 
Mela     Me-la 
Memsahib     Mem-sa-hib 
Moulvie     Mol-vl 


An  incarnation  of  Vishnu. 

100,000. 

A  celibate  priest  (Buddhist). 

Servant  in  charge  of  tents. 

Monolithic  column. 

Metal  cooking  utensil. 

School. 

Used  in  composition,  meaning  great. 

Great  God,  used  in  Shiva. 

Money  lender. 

An  adept  of  the  first  order. 

Plain. 

A  fair. 

Lady. 

Native  Mohammedan  teacher. 


Appendix  D 


269 


Munshi     Mun-shl 

Musjid     Mas-jid 

Nawab     Xa-wab 

Nirvana     Xir-van-a 

Paddy 

Padre  Sahib     Pad-ri  Sa-liib 

Pan     Pan 

Paul     Pa-nl 

Patel     Pa-tel 

Pathan     Pat-han 


Teacher. 

Mosque. 

Mohammedan  chief. 

Oblivion. 

Rice  in  the  husk. 

Clergyman  or  missionary 
The  leaf  which  encloses  the  beteln. 
Water. 
Head  man. 
A   mixed   tribe    on    the    boundary 


between  Afghanistan  and  Hindustan, 


Peshwa     Pesh-wa 

Pice 

Poor     Pur 

Pujah     Pu-jah 

00. 

Pukka     Pak-ka 

Pundit  or  Pandit     Pan-dit 

Pundita     Pan-di-ta 

Punkah     Pank-ha 

Purdah     Par-dah 

Rajah     RiVjah 

Rana     Ra-na 

Rani     Ra-ni 

Rupee     Ru-pl 

Ryot 

Saddhu     Sad-dhu 

Sahib     Sa-hib 

Saivite 

Salaam     Sa-lam 


Head  of  the  Mahratta  dynasty 
Small  copper  coin,  one-half  cent. 
Town,  used  as  a  terminal,  as  Jeypoor. 
Worship.      u   is     pronounced   like 

Firm,  strong. 

A  learned  man. 

Feminine  of  pundit. 

A  swinging  fan. 

A  curtain. 

Prince  or  sovereign. 

A  prince  or  king. 

Queen. 

About  thirty-three  cents. 

Peasant. 

An  ascetic. 

Sir,  lord. 

A  worshiper  of  Siva. 

A  salutation    meaning   peace   used 


in  greeting  and  farewell,  and  often  in  the  sense  of  thank 
you.  The  right  hand  is  raised  to  the  forehead  as  one 
savs  salaam. 


270 


Appendix  D 


Sari     Sa-ri 
Seer     Sir 

Sli  abash     Sha-b£sh 
Shanar     Sha-nar 
Shiva  or  Siva  Shiv 
The  Destroyer. 

Situra     Sit-ta-ra 
Swami     Swa-ml 
Tiffin 
Tom-tom 
Tonga 

Tulsi     Tdl-si 
rishu  Masih     Yi-sti-  Ma- 
Yogi     Y6-gi 
Yaisimftvite 
Yishnu     Yls-nu 
Preserver. 
Zayat     Za-yat 
Zemindar     Zi-min-dar. 
Zenana     Za-na-na 


Woman's  garmetnt. 

Not  quite  two  pounds. 

Well  done. 

A  caste  of  Palmyra-palm  climbers. 

The  third  person  in  the  Hindu  Triad. 

A  musical  instrument. 
Religious  teacher. 
Lunch. 

An  Indian  drum. 
A  light,  two-wheeled  vehicle. 
Sacred  plant, 
sih     Jesus. 

Hindu  fanatic  or  ascetic. 
A  worshiper  of  Yishnu. 
The  second  person  in  the  Triad.     The 

Wayside  chapel. 

Hereditary  occupier  of  the  soil. 

Apartments  of  ladies  of  rank. 


Appendix 

E 

Statistics  of  Protestant  Missions 

m  India 

-'-™"- 

:\l 

K'K-SS,' 

1 

1 

J't";.'..'-,"''" 

~                       1 

M,.,.K.,., 

,'l 

•;      ■! 

1 

1 

r 

J 

i 

1 

f 

if 

i 
I 

! 
f 

5^ 

i  i  [_  ;= 

- 

'' 

1 

505 
72 

2 

70 

58 

e 

257 
4.S 

j  ; 

8          10 

1    "Jo 
1    .'''' 
.1       I 

X         11 

i  ::" 

271 

1 
'1' 

Is 

8.409 

Iml 

'1 

■■  i38 

1 

-70 

'I 

'1 

25 

i.eg 

'■3 

1 

■ 

m 
I 

200 
27.150 

] 

"is 

33 
o.9r4 

1    13 

T    urn    'I    ]    i    iS 

1  J  ,  i  J  ii 

3       .5,10       3       6      5      22300 

i  ,""  ::   :.   •,   ■■'» 

1»  2,.;2'      '6     >       7      WA^ 
52    c;070     »     oJ    hS    S 

' :'  ;■  ^  •  ? 

' "  ■;  ■■  1  IS 

SE 


App:ndix  E.     Statistics  o{  Protestant  Missions  in  India. 


a 


.'4.W- 

2sy5;« 

J 

": 

85,128|     M,981 

s 

<! 

VI 


Appendix  F 


273 


APPENDIX  F 

Area  and  Population   of  British   Provinces  and    Native 
States,  zgox 

Area  in 
Province,  State,  or  Agency  Square  Milea'  Population 

Provinces 

1.  Ajmer-Merwara 2,711  476,912 

2.  Andamans  and  Nicobars 3,143  24,649 

3  Assam 56,243  6,126,343 

4  Baluchistan    ( Districts      and     jldministered 

Territories) 45,804  308,246 

5.  Bengal 151,185  74,744,866 

6  Berar 17  710  2,754,016 

1  V>ouxh2iy  {Presidency) 123,064  18,559,561 

Bombay 7S-,9^8  is^j04^77 

Sind 47,obb  s^io^gio 

^den 8o  43-ff74 

S.Burma 236  738  10  490,624 

9  Central  Pro\inces 86,459  9,876,646 

10.  Coorg 1,582  180,607 

11 .  Madras 141,726  38,209,436 

12.  North-West  Frontier  Province 16,466  2.125,480 

13.  Punjab 97,209  20,330,339 

14.  United  Provnces  of  Agra  and  Oudh 107  164  47,691.782 

Agra 83^q8  34-,Ss8,7os 

Oudh 23^qbb  isfys^orj'] 

Tota',  Brif  sh  Territory 1,087,204  231,899,507 

States  and  Agencies 

15.  Baluchistan  (Agency) 86,511  502,500 

16.  Baroda  State 8,099  1,952.692 

17.  Bengal  States 38,852  3,748,544 

18.  Bombay  States 65.761  6.908,648 

19  Central  India  Agency 78,772  8,628,781 

Gtualior  State 2^QJJ,00I 

20.  Central  Provinces  Statea 29  435  1.996.383 

21.  Hyderabad  State 82,698  11,141,142 

22  Kashmir  State 80.900  2.905  578 

23.  Madras  State 9,969  4,188  086 

Cochin    State ,...              8/2,02^ 

Travancore  State 2^S2-/S7 

24.  Mysore  State 29,444  5.539.399 

25.  Punjab  States 36,532  4.424.398 

26.  Rajputana  .Vgency , . . .  127.541  9.723,301 

27.  United  Provinces  States 5  079  802,097 

Total  Native  States 679,393  62  461.549 

Grand  Total  India 1,766,597  294,361,056 


274 


Appendix  G 


APPENDIX  G 
Distribution  of  Christians  by  Race  and  Denomination 


Denomination 


Anglican 

Armenian 

Baptist 

Congregationalist 

Greek 

Lutheran  and  Allied 
Denominations 

Methodist 

Presbyterian 

Quaker 

Roman  Catholic 

Eomo-Syrian 

Syrian  (Jacobite  and 
others) 

Ealvationist 

Q-ther  Denominations 
and  those  not  re- 
toned 


European 

and 

Allied  Races 


iilales      Fern 


81,583 


215 
495 

953 

4,494 

7,522 

15 

23,635 


1,830 


30.181 
385 
910 
206 
90 

447 

1,504 

2,171 

15 

10,329 

3 

1 
46 


793 


Eurasians 


Males    Fem 


993 
62 
27 

152 

1,060 

715 

3 

23,156 


18,049  17  732 
30         22 


Total 122,596  47,081  44,941  44,310  1,344.160  1,320.153  2,923.241 


1,024 


135 

1,360 

724 

1 

22,541 


681 


Natives 


Males        Fem 


154,544 

is 

110,180 

19,113 

25 

77,111 

35,759 

21,602 

731 

560,168 

163,607 

126,593 


64,953 


151,373 

8 

106,735 

18,200 

15 

76,65' 

32.730 

21,197 

544 

562,340 

158,976 

122,144 
9,081 


60,153 


Total 


1901 


»  453  462 

1,053 

221040 

37,874 

656 

155,455 

76,907 

53,931 

1,309 

1.202,169 

322,586 

248,741 
18  960 


129,098 


Including  92,644  who  described  themselves  as  Protestants. 


Appendix  H 


275 


APPENDIX  H 

Distribution  of  Population    According  to   Religion  and 
Education,  igoi 

MALES 
TotaJ 

Relig.ons                              Population      Illiterate  Literate 

Hindu 105,163,432      95,241,15(3  9  922,276 

Sikh 1,241,543        1  120,023  121,520 

Jain 691,787           366,489  325,298 

Buddhist 4  680,384        2.800,505  1,879,879 

Parsi 48,086             11,743  36,343 

Mohammedan 31,843,565     29.916,414  1.927,151 

Christian 1508,372        1,068,759  439,613 

Animistic 4,254  030        4,220,804  33.226 

Minor  and  Unspecified 10,907              6.133  4,774 

Tota'  Males 149,442  106    134,752,026  14,690,080 

FEMALES 

Hindu 101,945,436    101468.049  477.387 

Sikh 950  823           943,708  7,115 

Jain 642.249           630.794  11455 

Buddhist 4,796,368        4  592,738  203,630 

Parai 45.883             21,214  24.669 

Mohammedan 29,849  144      29,758,085  91,059 

Christian 1.410,843        1,233809  177,034 

Animistic 4  321,926        4,319  958  1,968 

Mmor  and  Unspecified 10  128              8104  2,024 

Total  Females 143,972  800    142,976,459  996,341 

Total  Population 293414,906    277.728  485  15.686,421 

^    Literacy  was  not  recorded  in  the  case  of  946,150  persons  (509,718  male* 
and  436.432  females). 


276  Appendix  I 


APPENDIX  I 

Some  of  the  Principal  Occupations  Upon  Which  Per- 
sons Depend  for  a  Living 

Agriculture 191,691.731 

General  Laborers 16,941,026 

Textile  Fabrics  and  Dress 11,214,158 

Mendicants  (non-rell^ous) 4,222,241 

Leather,  hides  and  horns 3,241,935 

Priests  and  others  engaged  in  Religion 2,728.812 

Barbers  and  Shampooers 2,331  598 

Grain  and  Pulse  Dealers 2,264,481 

Shoe,  Boot  and  Sandal  Makers 1,957,291 

Grocers  and  General  Condiment  Dealers 1  587  255 

Construction  of  Buildings 1  579.760 

Sweepers  and  Scavengers 1,518,422 

Fishermen  and  Fish  Curers 1,280.358 

Fish  Dealers 1,269,435 

Bankers  and  Money  Lenders,  etc 1  200,998 

Tailors,  Milliners  Dressmakers  and  Darners 1, 142, 153 

Vegetable  and  Fruit  Sellers 862  428 

Indefinite  and  disreputable  occupations 737,033 

Sweetmeat  Makers  and  Sellers 603,741 

Actors,  S  ngers.  Dancers,  Bandmasters,  Players,  etc 562,055 

Medical  Practitioners,  Midwives,  etc 520,044 

Railway  Servants. 503,993 

Teachers.  Professors  and  others  engaged  in  education 497  509 

Butchers  and  Slaughterers 345,933 

Barristers  and  others  engaged  id  Law 279,646 


INDEX 


INDEX 


Abdul  Masih,  147 

Aborigines,  32,33,91 ;  home  life, 
73;  in  college  at  Madura, 
178;  tribes  of,  96 

Administration,  see  British 
administration  in  India 

Afghanistan,   4 

Afghans,  37 

Africa,  8,  53.  207 ;  East,  234 

Age  of  Consent  Bill,  75 

Agra,  46,  143;  Akbar's  for- 
tress near,  37 

Agriculture,  improvements  by 
Carey,  143 

Ahmad,  Sir  Saiyid,  104 

Akbar  the  Great  36,  37 

Alaska,    53 

Albuquerque,  38 

Alexander  the  Great.  34 

Allahabad,  67 

Alphabets,  early  in  India,  108 

Ameer  of  Afghanistan,  4 

America,  38,  39,  156,  see  also 
North  Atnerica,  United  States 

American  Baptist  Missionary 
Union,     145,    150,    172,    173 

American  Board  of  Commis- 
sioners for  Foreign  Missions, 
145,  149,  157 

American  College  at  Madura, 
178 

Americans,  23 

Amritsar,  34 

Anam,  4 

Andaman  Islanders,  64 

Anderson,  John,  158 

Animists,  91,  93,  96 

Arabia,  93,  148,  234 

Arabian  Sea,  4 

Arabic  language,  146;  New 
Testament,  147,  148 


Architecture  of  the  Moguls,  37, 
106 

Arcot,  41 

Area  of  India,  1 ;  cultivable 
and  cultivated,  17 

Arizona,  3, 12 

Armenian  cemetery,  Tocat,  149 

Army,  1,  2 

Arts  and  sciences  and  their 
schools,  67,  143 

Aryans,  invasion  by,  1,  33,  34 ; 
originally  not  idol    worship- 
ers, 108;  race  of,   1,  32,   53, 
54,  61,  62;  type  of,  64 

Arya-samaj,  240 

Asia,  1,  3,  4,  9,  13,  33,  98,  234, 
236 

Assam,  1,  4,  6, 11,  46,  62,  92,  96 

Asylums,  185 

Baber,  36 

Bactria,  34,  35 

Bailey,  Benjamin,  158 

Bakarganj,  11 

Baluchistan,  3,  4,  11,  93 

Bananas,    15 

Banerjea,  Krishna  Mohun, 
155    232 

Banerji,  Babu,  S.  N.,  50 

Banyan  trees,  16,  31 

Baptist  churches,  145,  153; 
Karen  Mission,  240 ;  Mission 
Press  at  Calcutta,  179; 
missionaries  at  Serampur, 
149;  Missionary  Society  in 
England,  140;  in  America, 
see  American  Baptist  Mis- 
sionary Union;  Young  Peo- 
ple's Union,  194 

Bareilly,  184 

Baroda  State,  46 


279 


280 


Index 


Basel  Evangelical  Mission,  189 

Bazaar,  the,  169 

Beggars  or  devotees,  71 

Behar,  34,  46 

Belgium,  3 

Benares,  19,  34 

Bengal,  8,  12,  23,  46,  47,  92,  93, 
96,  143;  Bay  of,  5,  7;  delta 
of,  3;  Government  of,  192; 
Legislative  Council,  231; 
nawab,  42 ;  viceroy,  41 

Bengali,  language,  62 ;  oratory 
and  periodicals,  65;  transla- 
tion into,  by  Carey,  141-143; 
use  in  baptizing,  142 

Besant,  Mrs.,  213 

Bhairava,  114 

Bhils,  the,  96 

Bhutan,  143 

Bible,  143,  155,  178,  180;  cir- 
culation, 150,  181;  classes, 
191,  192;  Societv,  180,  181; 
translation,  136,  141,  142, 
146-152,  226 

Bihari  language,  62 

Blavatsky,  Madame,  215 

Boardman,  George  Dana,  159 

Boats,  for  traffic,  7,  8 

Bombav,  2,  17,  19-21,  41,  46, 
47,  67,  92,  93,  137,  157,  159, 
185 ;  Presidency,  185 ;  Sam- 
achar  (paper),  68 

Book  of  Common  Prayer,  146 

Books,  142,  143,  179,  186,  226 

Bose,  Ram  Chandra,  232 

Botany,   Carey's  help  to,   143 

Boundaries  of  India,  4 

Brahma,  113 

Brahmanism,  97 

Brahmans,  78,  97,  108,  109, 
178,  185,  186,  192,  206 

Brahmaputra  River,  6-8,  10; 
valley,  11      ♦ 

Brahmo-samaj  ,  239 

Brainerd,  David,  146,  149,  158 

Breadfruit,  16 

British  administration  in  India 
2,  48;  civilians,  138,  147,  191 ; 
control,  41,  49,  53:  East 
India   Companv,  39-42,   44, 


45,  140;  empire,  40,  45 
extension  of  territory,  41 
42;  gain  in  revenue,  41 
42;  government  in  India 
12,  37,  46,  48,  49;  officials 
43-46,  50,  138,  191;  para- 
mount authority,  42,  48 
power  to  hold  India,  47-49 
providential  destiny,  51-53 
provinces,  3,  45,  46 ;  reforms 
needed,  50;  residents,  1,  46 
rulers,  137;  schools,  154 
174-177;  soldiers,  44,  50 
138,  146,  147,  191 

BroTATi,  David,  157 

Bubonic  plague,  13 

Buchanan,  Claudius,  157 

Buddha,  99-101,  111 

Buddhism,  61,  72,  91-95,  97- 
103  ;  date  of  its  rise,  97; 
Gautama,  its  founder,  97; 
growth  and  decline  in  India, 
97,  98;  its  extension  as  a 
missionary  religion,  98;  its 
fourth  council,  35;  north- 
em  and  southern  sections,  98 ; 
precepts  and  teachings,  98- 
102;  results  contrasted  with 
Christianity,  102,  103  ; 
strong  opposition  and  in- 
tolerance in  Burma  toward 
Judson,  150-153 

Burial,  32 

Burma,  1,  4,  5,  7, 11, 14, 16,  46, 
62,  69,  92,  93,  96-98, 143,178; 
emperor's  intolerance,  150- 
152;  Ko  San  Ye  movement, 
240,  241 

Burmans,  64,   100-102 

Burmese  Bible,  150;  language, 
150  ;Mission,149-153 ;  women, 
93 

Butler,  Dr.  William,  159 

Calcutta,  2,  8,  19-21,  42,  96, 
142,  157,  159,  184,  234; 
arrival  of  missionaries  at, 
141,  149,  154;  Botanical 
Gardens  16 ;  college  by  Dufif, 
154,  156;  early  era  of  Euro- 
pean vice,  237,  238;  Hitavadi 


Index 


281 


(paper),    68,\^chools,  65,  67, 
192 ;  University,   192 

Calicut,  38 

California,    11,   53 

Cambridge  University,  146, 
153 

Campbell,  Sir  Colin,  44 

Canada,  3,  53,  155,  218 

Canals,  chieflv  for  irrigation, 
8,  12,  43,  52 

Cape  of  Good  Hope,  38 

Carey,  William,  139-146,  154, 
157,  161,  174,  179,  234,  237, 
238,  241 ;  as  pastor  of  Bap- 
tist church  and  shoemaker, 
139;  developed  power  to 
master  languages,  139;  dis- 
courses effect  missionary 
organization,  140;  famous 
motto,  140;  goes  to  India,  141 ; 
Mudnabatty,  141 ;  preaching 
and  Scripture  translation, 
141 ;  142;  Serampur  and  pro- 
fessorship, 141-143;  work 
covering  forty-one  years, 
and  influence,  143-146 

Caste,  77-83,  95,  97,  102,  109, 
119,  154;  breaking  in  Chris- 
tian schools  and  by  rise  to 
positions,  171,  178,  192  ,  230, 
234;  divisions  of,  77,  78; 
four  classes,  78,  79;  names 
of  castes  often  misleading, 
81;  outcasts  or  "depressed 
classes,"  79,  80,  203-206; 
rules,  80,  81,  211;  sacrifice 
of  modesty  and  even  life,  81, 
82;  should  be  dealt  with 
carefully,  202,  203,  211; 
some  advantages  and  disad- 
advantages,  83,  117,  118,; 
thirty-five  castes  in  Ameri- 
can College,  Madura,  178; 
unites  Hmdus,  but  also 
divides,  108 

Cawnpur,  44,  147,  148 

Cedar  of  Lebanon,  16 

Celt,  the  61 

Census  of  British  empire,  45 

Central  India,  43;  Agencv,  46, 
92 


Central  Provinces,  46,  92,  96 

Ceylon,  21,  92,  98,  159, 178 

Chalmers,  Dr.,   154 

Chandra  Gupta,  34 

Chaplains  of  East  India  Com- 
pany,   146,    157 

Cherra  Punji,  11 

Chet  Ram,  181 

Chicago,  231,  University,  232 

Child  lite,  49,  72-76 ;  marriage, 
37,  75,  76,  236,  240;  widows, 
75,  76 

Children  instructed,  143;  sac- 
rifice stopped,  143 

China,  5,  10,  23,  98,  244; 
Boxer  uprising,  44 

Chinese  empire,  4 

Chins,  the,  96 

Cholera,  13,  22,  23 

Christ,  103,  111,  118,  168;  as 
Sa\'iour,  84,  103,  107,  123, 
147,  181,  182;  to  possess 
India,  161,  194; 

Christian  agents,  228;  com- 
mvmicants,  228 ;  community, 
228 ;  literature,  see  Literary 
work;  missionarv  conquerors 
of  India,  131-164. 

Christianity,  54;  contrast  with 
Buddhism,  101,  103;  Hindu- 
ism, 119,123;  Mohammedan- 
ism, 107 

Christians,  91-93;  increase  in 
India,  228 

Church   buildings  erected,  138 

Church  Missionary  Societv,  153 

Church  of  England,  232,  of 
Scotland,  154 

Churches,  of  United  States 
and  Canada,53 ;  membership, 
218 

Cities,  2,  3,  18,  23,  31,  68 

Climate,  19-23 

Clive,  Lord,  40-42 

Clothing,  70 

Clough,  John  E.,  159,  172 

Coal,  14 

"Coast  Mission,  the,"  136 

Coast  regions,  3,  5,  11,  21,  38 

Cochin,     158 

Code  of  Manu,  78,  109 


38^ 


Index 


Coffee,  17 

Colleges,  Christian,  in  India, 
154,  156,  178,  232;  grad- 
uates, 155,  178 

Columbus,  Christopher,  38 

Commerce,  14,  38,  39,  48,  53; 
Parsees  in,  93 

Congregational  Churches,  149; 
Missionary  Societies,  145 

Constantinople,  148 

Continental,  see  European 

Converts,  136-138,  143,  150, 
159,161,  229,  234;  advance 
of,  84 ;  from  among  devotees, 
122;  from  schools  and  col- 
leges, 155,  178;  see  also 
Native  Christians 

Corrie,  Daniel,  157 

Cotton,  17 

Cotton,  Sir  A.,  12 

Croesus,  13 

Cuddalore,  138 

Cultivated  area,  17 

Custard  apple,  15 

Da  Gama,  Vasco,  38 

Dalhousie,  Lord,  18;  achieve- 
ments in  India,  43 

Daman,  38 

Danish,    missions,    135-138; 
settlements,  39, 142 

Darjiling,  11 

Dav,  Samuel  S.,  159,  172 

Deccan,  the,  5,  11,  13,  41,  172 

Decennial  Missionary  Confer- 
ence, 193 

Delhi,  21,  36,  37,  44,  45 

Delta  of  Bengal  or  of  the 
Ganges  and  Brahmaputra, 
3,  6 ;  of  the  Irawadi,  5 

Demarara,  234 

Deo  or  spirit,  110 

Desert,  17 

Devil  worshipers,  122 

Devotees,  religious,  116,  117, 
119-122 

Diamonds,  13, 14 

Dinapur,  146 

Diseases,   13,  22,  23 

Diu,  38 

Douglass,  Francis  A.,  159 


Dravidian  race,  62,  64 

Dravido-Munda  people,  32,  62 

Drink  traffic,  50 

Drought,  12, 13 

Drysdale,  Anne  Scott,  154 

Dualism,  94 

Duff,  Alexander,  153-156;  159, 
161,  174,  176;  father  and 
mother,  153;  first  missionary 
impression,  153;  marriage 
and  voyage  to  India,  154; 
success  and  effect  of  colleges 
at  Calcutta  and  Madras, 
156;  vast  educative  work  in 
home  fields,  155, 156 

Dupleix,  40,  41 

Durbars,  45 

Durian,  the,  16 

Dutch  East  India  Company,  39 

Earthenware,  prehistoric,  32 

East  India  Company,  see 
British  East  India  Company 

East  India  Railway,  192 

East,  the,  see  Orient,  the 

Eastern  Ghats,  5 

Eastern  India,  159 

Ecumenical  Missionary  Con- 
ference, 232 

Educational  work,  49,  50,  52 
64,  66-68,  93,  107,173-178 
Christ's  commission,  173 
instruction  needed  173,  174 
modern  movement,  143 
154,  157,  159,  174-176 
results  show  its  necessity 
176-178;  type,  in  college 
at  Madura,  178;  women 
participating,  175,  176 

Edward  VII,  King-Emperor, 
244 ;  crowned  and  proclaimed 
emperor  of  India,  45,  233 

Egypt,  8 

Employment,  a  problem,  211, 
212 

England,  see  Great  Britain 

English,  see  British 

EngHsh  language,  64,  67,  68; 
use  in  colleges  by  Duff  and 
in  government  schools,   154 

English-speaking  race,  54,  156 


Index  283 


Epworth  League,  194  Fortress  of  Gingi,  40 

Equator,  20  France,  39,  49 

Europe,    2,    13,    14,    38,    134;  Eraser,    Sir    Donald,    192 

powers  having  early  settle-  Freethinking  sect  of  Moham- 

ments  in  India,  38-40  medans,   104 

European  languages  in  India,  French  companies,  39 ;  depend- 

62;  mode  in  preaching,  168  encies,40;  efforts  in  the  East, 

Europeans,    21,    23,    61,    191;  39,  40 

former  vices  needing  correc-  Frenchmen,  137 

tion,  237-239  Fruits,  15, 16 

Evangelistic     work,     168-173; 

discourses  seated  or  stand-  Ganesha,  115 
ing,     168;    in    bazaars    and  Ganges,  canal,   43;  river,  6-9, 
melas,  169;  itinerating  among  31;  valley,  34,  43,  159 
villages,  170;  open  air  stere-  Gangetic  plain,  3 
opticon   services,    170;   pro-  Garos,  the,  96 
fcssors       and       evangelistic  Gautama,  97,  99,  100 
bands  from  seminaries,  170,  German   company,   39 
trained  native  pastors,  170,  Germany,  49 
171;     women     workers     in  Ghats,  see  Eastern  Ghats, West- 
homes,    171,    172;    years    of  ern  Ghats 
prayer  and  work  bring  thous-  Giving  and  support  of  missions, 
ands   among   Telugus,    172,  138,142, 145, 147, 155;  ability 
173  great,   218,   219;  proportion 

Evils  removed,  49,  236;  still  to  and  Christlike  motive,  217- 

be  overcome,  50  219 

Exports,  14,  17  Godavari  River,  7 

God,    12,    103,    107,   119,   139, 

Fairbank,  Samuel  B.,  159  140,  148,  243,  244 

Fakirs  or  devotees,    119,   120,  God  or  gods,  in  the  non-Chris- 

181  tian  faiths,  94,  96,  105-107, 

Famines,  13  110-115,  236;   Animism,  96, 

Fatalism,  106,  107,  112  100,     101;    Buddhism,    102; 

Fertility  of  land,  17  Hinduism,      110-115,      118, 

Fetichism   and  similar   forms,  119;  Mohammedanism,  105, 

110  106;  Parseeism,  94 

Feudatory   states,   see   Native  Gogra  River,  6 

states  Golri,  13,  32,  53 

Fevers,  13,  22,  23  Gonds,  the,  96 

Fiji  Islanders,  234  Governor-General,  46,  see  also 

Financial  problem  in  missions.  Viceroy 

216-219  Governors,  46 

Fire,  worshiped  by  Parsees,  94  Great  Britain,  23,  39-57,  139, 

Food,     70;     products,     14-16;  145,155,156 

revolting  as  a  test  by  devo-  Greece,  244 

tees,  121  Greek  invasion,  34,  35 

Forests,  16  Greeks,  1,  61 

Fort  Ontario,  40 ;  Saint  George,  Guavas,  15 

40 ;  Ticonderoga,  40 ;  William  Gujarat,  1 1 

Henry,  40;  Gujarati  language,  62 

Fort  William  College,  142  Gunga  Sangor,  143 


28-1 


Index 


Haidarabad,  41,  46,  92 

Hall,  Gordon,  157 

Hanuman,  115 

Harrison,  ex-President,  232 

Harvard  University,  192 

Hastings,  Warren,  42 

Hasseltine,  Miss  Ann,  149 

Havelock,  Sir  Henrv,  44 

Health,  20-23 

Heber,  Reginald,  157 

Heights  of  Abraham,  40 

Heine,  31 

Hides,  17 

Hill  region,  5 

Himalaya  Mountains,  4-7,  11, 
16,31 

Himalayan  range,  4 

Hindi  language,  62 

Hindu  Kush  Mountains,  35 

Hindu  civilization,  34;  deities 
worshiped  by  Jains,  95; 
kingdoms,  34;  marriage  and 
home  life,  72-74;  princes,  36; 
reconquest  of  part  of  India, 
37;  rulers,  137;  widows,  37, 
231,  236,  240 

Hinduism,  61,  72,  91-98,  108- 
122,  143,  214,  215;  adherents 
form  bulk  of  Indian  people, 
108;  early  developed  among 
Aryans  in  India,  108;  hter- 
ature  in  the  Brahmanic  or 
Vedic  writings,  108-110; 
seven  articles  of  faith,  110- 
112;  ;  six  philosophical  sys- 
tems, 112,  113;  triad,  Brah- 
ma, Vishnu,  Shiva,  113, 114; 
wife  of  Shiva,  Kali,  114,  115; 
wisdom  and  monkey  gods, 
115;  worthless  tortures  and 
low  moral  tone  of  devotees, 
115-123 

Hindus,  44,  61,  96,  146,178, 
185,  192,  206,  211 ;  relatively 
tolerant  and  progressive,  66, 
131 

Hindustani    language,     146; 
New  Testament,  146,  147 

Hodson,  Thomas,  158 

Hoisington,  Henry,  158 


Homes,     69,     lack    Christian 

ideal,  70 
Hospitals,  by  Jains  for  animals 

95;  mission,  185,  186,  225 
Hough,  James,  158 
Hugh,  city,  8;  River,  141 
Hyder  All,  138 

Idaho,  3 

Idolatry  and  idols,  pictures, 
153 ;  worship,  95,  96, 106, 108 
240 

Illiteracy,  66,  67,  107 

Imad-ud-din,  Rev.,  233 

Imports,  14 

Improvements,  43,  48,  49,  235 

Incarnations  in  Hinduism,  111, 
113,  114 

Independents,    missionary 
agency  for,  145 

India,  accessible  to  missionary 
effort,  131 ;  area,  1 ;  army,  1, 
2;  boundaries,  4;  British 
provinces,  3,  46;  Christian 
conquerors,  131-164;  cities, 
2,  3;  climate,  19-23;  com- 
merce, 14;  cultivated  area, 
17;  divisions,  physical,  4; 
exports  and  imports,  14,  17; 
famines,  13;  food  products, 
14-16;  forests,  16;  free  press 
and  speech,  131 ;  French 
possessions,  40 ;  fruits,  15, 16 : 
government  transferred  to 
crown,  44,  45 ;  improvements 
under  Dalhousie,  43;  invad- 
ers and  rulers,  31-56;  irri- 
gation, 9,  12,  43;  lack  of 
patriotism,  47 ;  languages, 
33,  62-64 ;  legislative  powers, 
2;  missionaries  from,  to 
other  places,  234;  mission- 
aries to,  133-161 ;  missionary 
results,  225-242;  monsoons, 
9-11,21;  mountains,     5; 

Mutiny,  43 ;  name,  1 ;  Na- 
tional Missionarv  Society 
241,  242;  native  states,  1,  3' 
46,  47;  people,  61-87;  popul 
lation,  2,  38,  40,  45,  46,  105; 
Portuguese  possessions,  Sg' 


Index 


285 


Public    Works     Department 
43;    products,    13-17;   races, 
61,  62;  railroads  or  railways, 
2,   17-19,  43;  rainfall,  11,  12; 
religions,  91-127  ;  re  venues,  1 ; 
rich  country  but  poor  people, 
70,  71 ;  rivers,  6-9 ;  rulers,  33- 
38,     40-45;    seasons,     19-22; 
statistics,  see  Statistics  of  In- 
dia;      temperature,      19-22; 
towns,  2,  68,'  18;  treasures, 
13,   14;  viceroy,     1,  45,  46; 
viUages,  2,   23,  68,    69,  184; 
wealth,   13;  women,  66,  72- 
77,  102,  119,  161,  171,  172; 
see  also  sections,  as  Eastern 
India 
Indigo,   17 
Indo-Chinese,  62 
Indoor  services,  169 
Indus  River,  1,  4,  6,  8,  34 
Industrial  work,  call  for  such 
agency  187;  difficulties,  187, 
188;     improvements,     52; 
requirements  and  successes, 
188,  189 
Ingalls,    Mrs.  Murilla  B.,   161 
Inquisition  in  India,  134 
Invaders      of      India,      32-36; 
.      Aryans,   33,   34;    Greeks  34, 
35;    Mohammedans,     35-38; 
settlements  and  British  con- 
trol,  38-54 
Inventiveness,  lack  of,  65,  66 
Irawadi,   delta,  5;  River,  5,  7, 

150 
Irrigation,  9,  12 
Islam,  see  Mohammedanism 
Italy,  49 

Jack-fruit,  16 

Jains,  the,  91-95 

Jamalpur,  192 

Java,  234 

Jehlam  River,  34 

Jesuit  efforts  in  India,  134,  135 

Jewels  and  jewelry,  13,  71 

Jewett,  Lyman,  159,  172 

Jewett,  Mrs.,  172 

Jews,  91-93 

Johnston,  Robert,  159 


Judaism,  93,  107,  202 

Judson,  Adoniram,  149-153, 
161 ;  conversion,  marriage, 
and  departure  for  India, 
149;  doctrinal  view  and 
church  relation  changed, 
149,  150;  entrance  upon 
work  in  Burma  and  first 
converts,  150;  imprisonment 
at  Ava  and  Oung-pen-la,  151 ; 
Maulmein  and  the  Karens, 
152;  missionary  motto,  152; 
translation  of  Bible  and 
close  of  life,  152,  153 

Judson,  Ann  Hasseltine,  bride, 
149,  151 ;  devotion  to  hus- 
band during  imprisonment, 
151 ;  missionary  heroism  and 
death,  151,  152 

Jute,  17 

Kaching,  the,  96 

Kali,  114,  115 

Kalima,  the,  of  Mohammed- 
anism, 105 

Kanarese,  64 

Kanishka,  35 

Kansas,  15 

Karens,  the,  96;  mission  work 
among,  152,  159,  240,  241 

Karikal,  40 

Karma,    \mder   Buddhism,    99 

Kashmir,  35,  61,  92,  93 

Kellogg,  Samuel  H.,  160 

Keshub  Chunder  Sen,  239 

Kettering,  140 

Khandoba,  77 

Khasis,  the,  96 

King  of  England,  appointment 
of  governors,  46 

"Kings, "  sought  to  be  used  by 
Xavier,  134 

Kistna  River,  7 

Klondyke,  the,  53 

Ko    San   Ye     movement,   240 

Ko  Thah-byu,  232 

Koran,  the,  107 

Kshattriyas,  78 

Krishna,  77,  114 

Krishna   Pal,    142,   232 


286 


Index 


Lahore,  21 

Landholder's  rights,  42 

Languages  of  India,  33,  62-64, 
67,  68 

Legislative  powers,  2 

Lemons,  15 

Letters,     Carey's     influence 
through, 145 

Life,  abnormal  regard  for,  95, 
101,  236 

Limes,  16 

Lisbon,  38 

Literary  work  and  the  press, 
137,  150,  157,  159;  Christian 
literature  presses  and  agen- 
cies, 179,  180;  need,  range, 
and  value  of  output,  179- 
182,  226 

Literature  Society,  Christian, 
180 

London,  23,  140;  Missionary 
Society 

Loquats,  15 

Lucknow,  19;  relief  of,  44; 
ruined  residency,  44 

Lumber,   17 

Madras,  2,  12,  41,  46,  47,  67, 
92,  93,  96,  137,  138,  147,  156, 

157,  159,    172,    191;   Presi- 
dency, 172 

Madura,  158,  172 

Mahahharata,  the,  109 

Mahanadi  River,  7 

Mahe,  40 

Mahmud,  Tuglak  King,  36 

Malayalam  64 

]\Ialaysia,  234 

Mango  tree  and  fruits,  15 

Marathas,  37,  159 

Marathi  language,  62,  142 

Marriage,  71-76 

Marshman,  Joshua,  157 

Martyn,  Henry,   145-149,   157, 

158,  161 ;  decision  for  mis- 
sions at  Cambridge,  146, 
153 ;  duties  as  chaplain  com- 
bined with  mission  service, 
146,  147;  labors  at  Dinapur 
and  Cawnpur,  146,  147; 
journey  through  Persia  and 


death,    148,    149;    work    as 
translator,  influence,  149 

"Mass  movements,"  210 

Mauhnein,  152 

Maya,  or  illusion.  111 

Mayo,  Lord  ,  18 

Mazabi-Sikhs,  96 

McConaughy,  Mr.  David,  191 

Mecca,  pilgrimage  to,  105 

Medical  work,  159,  182-186; 
demand  for  medical  aid,  182- 
184;  range  and  worth  of  this 
ministrv,  185,  186 

Meerut,  36 

Melas,  169 

Merit,  Buddhist  doctrine  of, 
100-102 

Metal  age  in  India,  32 

Military  stations,  18 

Millet,  15,  70 

Milton,  31 

Mir  Jafar,  42 

Miraj  Medical  Mission,  185 

Mission  jDress,  see  Literary 
work 

Mission  schools,  see  Educa- 
tional work,  Schools 

Missionaries,  2,  21,  48,  50,  69, 
96,  131,  133-  161,  191,  193, 
214,  233,  235 

Missionary'-  agencies,  54,  167- 
198,  see  also  separate  topics, 
as  Educational  work;  giving 
216-219;  lectures,  156;  pol- 
icy, 215;  problems,  201-221; 
professorship,  156;  results, 
225-248;  Society  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
159 

Missions,  Protestant,  44,  53, 
144;  accessibility  of  India, 
131;  Danish  work,  135-138; 
date  of  modern  era,  141; 
first  centurv  of  development, 
139-161,  225-239;  possibili- 
ties for  the  future,  217-219, 
242-245;  quickening  of  the 
home  field,  155,  215-219; 
woman's  work,  160, 161, 171, 
172,  227 

Mississippi  River,  6 


Index 


287 


Mitchell,  J.  Murray,  157 

Moguls,  36,  42 

Mohammed,  35 

Mohammedan  intolerance  and 
unprogressive  spirit,  66,  107, 
131;  rulers,   36-38,   137 

Mohammedanism,  61,  72,  91- 
93,  95,  103-107,  214,215; 
accepted  in  eastern  Bengal, 
38;  advanced  by  power  of 
the  sword  and  offer  of 
position,  104;  conquest  and 
rule  in  India,  35-38,  103,  104; 
dynasties,  36 ;  extension  now 
not  rapid,  104,  105;  four 
sects,  104;  its  dogmatic  and 
practical  parts,  105,  106; 
marriage  and  place  of 
woman,  72,  73,  107;  relative 
benefits  and  evils,  106,  107; 
sensuality,  106,  107;  viewed 
in  contrast  with  Christianity, 
107 

Mohammedans,  44,  66,  96,  131, 
146,  178,  186,  192,  206,211 

Mongolian  type,  64 

Mongols,  see  Moguls 

Monotheism,  94,  106 

Monsoons,   9-11,21 

Montana,  3 

Montcalm,  General,  39,  40 

Moslem,  see  Mohammedan 

Mosques,  Great,  37;  Pearl,  37 

Mottoes,  missionary,   140,   152 

Moung  Nau,  150 

Mountains,  5 

Mudnabatty,   141 

Muhammad  Ali,  41 

Mullens,  Mrs.  H.  C,  161 

Murdoch,  John,   159 

Mutiny,  the,  17,43, 148 ;  causes, 

43,  44;  outcome  and  results, 

44,  45,  159 

Mysore,  14,  138,  158;  States, 
46 

Nagas,  107 

Nagas,  the,  96 

Naini  Tal,  11 

Narbada  River,  5,  7;  valley,  32 

Natal,  South  Africa,  173,"  234 


National  Missionary  Society  of 
India,  241-242 

Native  Bible  women,  171,  172; 
Christians,  153;  churches, 
150,  172,  213;  missionary 
societies,  173,  241,  242; 
princes   or   rulers,  1,  43,  45, 

46,  138,  233;  soldiers,  43,  44, 

47,  96;  States  and  Agencies, 
1,  3,  42,  46,  47;  testimony 
for  British  control,  50-52; 
workers,  170-173,  226,  227, 
233 

Nat-sin,  101 
Nats,  100 
Nautch  girls,  77 
Nellore,  172 
Nepal,  62,  234 
Nesbit,  Robert,  157 
Nestorian  Christians,  132 
New   Testament,    translations, 

141,  142,  146-149 
New  York  City,  232;  State,  11 
Newell,  Harriet,  157 
Newell,  Samuel,  157 
Nicholson,  Gen.  John,  44 
Nile  River,  6,  8 
Nineteenth  century,  43 
Nirvana  or  Neikban,  98,  100 
Noble,  Miss,  215 
North  America,  7,  11,  12,  14, 

23,  61,  65,  154;  resources  of 

Churches,  218 
Northern  India,  15,  19,  20,  34, 

69,  92,   137,   160,   181,  230, 

240,  245 
Northwestern  India,  11,  34 
Nundy  ,  Rev.  Gopinath,  155 

Occident,  the,  23,  54 

Official  promotion  for  natives, 

44 
Ohio,  11 
Ongole,  172 
Ontario,  3 
Opium  evil,  50 
Oranges,  15 
Orient,  the,  23,  31,  38,  135, 144, 

149,  159,  168 
Orissa,  143 
Oriya  language,  62 


288 


Index 


Orphanages,  190 

Oudh,  46 

Oung-pen-la     prison,      151 

Oxford  University,  231 

Pagoda,  in  Buddhist  worship, 
100, 101,  Martyn's  at  Seram- 
pur,  241 

Pah  language,  150 

Panchamas,  79 

Panipat,  battle  of,  37 

Panjabi  language,  62 

Pantheism,  94,  106,  110 

Paper,  improved  by  Carey,  143 

ParseeB,  91-94,  185 

Passes  of  India,  32,  36 

Patna,  8,  146 

Paul,  the  Apostle,  91,  149,  244 

Peace  and  progress,  48,  50 

Peking,  44 

People  of  India,  61-87;  caste 
distinctions,  77-83 ;  intellec- 
tual gifts,  65;  lack  of  inven- 
tiveness, 65,  66;  literacy 
and  schools,  66-68 ;  physical 
characteristics,  64,  65;  rela- 
tive progressiveness,  66 ;  ;  sex 
regulations,  72-77;  sin  ex- 
plains phght,  83,  84 

Periodicals,  65,  68,  226 

Persecution,  132,  210 

Persia  and  Persians,  1,  61,  94, 
148,  234 

Persian  language,  146  New 
Testament,  147,  148,  149 

Pettitt,  George,  158 

Philanthropic  work ;  famine 
orphanages,  190;  results, 
190,  191 

Philippine  Islands,  234 

Phj'sical  divisions  of  India,  4 

Physicians,  lack  of,   184 

Pineapples,    15 

Plague,  the,  23 

Plains  of  Northern  India,  4 

Plassey,  battle  of,  40-42 

Plateau,  the  southern,  of  India, 
3,  5 

Plutschau,  Danish  missionary, 
135 


Policy  by  which  India  was  won, 
40-42;  and  is    held,  47-49 

Political  authority  relinquished 
by  native  rulers,  43 

Polygamy,  72-74,  107;  a  mis- 
sionary problem,    206-210 

Polytheism,  106,   110 

Pondicherri,  40 

Poona,  159 

Pope,  the,  132,  134 

Population,  2 

Portugal,   38 

Portuguese  Christians,  135; 
language  used,  137 ;  expedi- 
tions and  possessions  in 
India,  38,  132,   133 

Porus,  34 

Postage,  cheaper,  43 

Poverty  of  masses,  47, 70, 71 

Prayers,  105,  107,  123 

Press,  see  Literary  work 

Princeton  University,  192 

Prisons  in  Burma,  151 

Piivate  baptism,  210 

Products,  13-17 

Protestant  Christians,  228,  see 
also  Missions,  Protestant, 
Native    Christians 

Provinces,  British,  2,  45,  46 

Prussia,  39 

Public  opinion,  49 ;  office,  50 

Public  Works  Department,  43 

Punjab,  12,  32-34,  46,  67,  92 

Puranas,  the,  109 

Queen  Victoria,  see  Victoria 

Races,  61,  62 

Railroads  or  railwaj'-s,  2,  17-19, 

43,  52 
Rains  and  the  rainfall,  11,  12, 

21,  22 
Rajah  of  Bhurtpur,  147 
Rajasthani  language,  62 
Rajputana,  92 
Rajputs,  78 

Ram  Chandra,  professor,  232 
Ram  Mohan  Roy,  239 
Ramabai,  Pandita,  186,  231 
Ramayana,    the,    109 


Index 


289 


Ramazan,  Mohammedan  fast, 
105 

Rangoon,  20,   150-152 

Red  Sea,  43 

Religions  of  India,  33,  91-127 

Religious  freedom  and  tolera- 
tion,   37,  52,  131 

Results  in  India  missions,  225- 
245;  a  first  half  century, 
226;  a  second  half  century, 
227 ;  agencies  among  women, 
228 ;  Christian  population 
and  community,  228-231 ; 
eminent  native  converts,  231- 
233;  foreign  expansion,  233, 
234 ;  literature,  226 ;  obstacle 
of  caste  lessened,  234,  235 ; 
property,  225 ;  reforms,  235- 
239 ;  samajes  and  native  mis- 
sion movements,  239-242 ; 
vast    opportunity,242-245 

Resurrection,  beUef  of  Parsees, 
94 

Revenues,  1,  41,  42 

Rhode  Island,  3 

Rice,  14,  17,  70 

Rice,  Luther,  149,  150 

Ringletaube,  W.  T.,  157 

Rivers,  as  fertilizers  and  high- 
ways, 8,  9;  as  land-makers, 
9;  traffic,  7,  8;  volume,  6,  7 

Roman  Catholic  Christians, 
92,  228;  Church,  132;  mis- 
sions, 133-135 

Rome,  244 

"Roof  of  the  world,"  3 

Riilers  of  India,  33-38,  40-45 

Russia,  2, 49 

Sabat,  147 

"Sacred  Book"  of  Buddhism, 

102 
Saint  Lawrence  River,  6 
Sakti  worship,  110 
Salem,  Massachusetts,  149 
Salwin  River,  152 
Samarkand,  36 
Sanskrit  language,  33,  63,  142, 

146 
Sarasvati,  Dyanand,  240 
Sathianthan,  Mrs.,  232 


Satpura  range,  5 

Schools,  effect  of  Duff's  use  of 
English,  154,  174;  govern- 
ment, 65-67,  174-177;  high, 
192,  206;  mission,  50,  143, 
154,  155,  173-178,227 

Schwartz,  Christian  Friedrich, 
137,  138 

Scudder,  John,  158 

Scythians,  35 

Seasons,  19-22 

Seleukos  Nikator,  34 

Self-government,  a  problem, 
213,  214 

Self-support  of  pastors,  212,213 

Sepoys,  43 

Serampur,  39,  141,  143,  149, 
154,  157,  241 

Sermon  on  the  Mount,   168 

Settlements  in  India,  38,  39 

Shah  Jehan,  37;  palace  of,  37 

Shanghai,  96 

Sheshadri,  Rev.  Narayan,  233 

Shiah,  sect  of  Mohammedans, 
104 

Shiraz,  148 

Shiva,  113,  114 

Siam,  4,  98 

Sikhs,  91-93,  95,  96 

Silt,  8,  9 

Silver,  13,  32 

Simeon,  Rev.  Charles,  146,  153 

Sin,  a  plight  of  non-Christian 
lands,  84;  viewed  by  fatal- 
ism, 112 

Sindh,  Sindhis,  1 

"Sindhus,"  1 

Sing,  Sir  Hanam,  242 

Singapore,  20 

Singh,  Miss  Lilavati,  232 

Slavs,  61 

Social  life  elevated,  49 

Soldiers,  see  Native  soldiers 

Sorabji  sisters,  231 

Sorghum,  15 

South  Country,  5 

Southern  India,  13,  16,  19,  20, 
34,  132,  135,  137-139,  156, 
230,  245 

Spaniard,  53 

Spirit  of  Good  and  of  EvH,  94 


290 


Index 


Spirits,  animistic  views,  96, 
100,  101 

Starvation,  13,  see  also  Fam- 
ines 

Sta.tes,  feudatory,  or  native, 
see  Native  states 

Statistics  of  India:  area,  1; 
army,  2 ;  beggars  or  devotees 
71,  122:  boats,  8;  British 
empire,  45 ;  Britisli  provinces 
46 ;  canals,  12 ;  cities.  3 ;  culti- 
vated land,  17;  deaths  from 
famine,  13;  exports,  17; 
French  possessions,  40 ;  mis- 
sions, 225-228 ;  Mohammedan 
increase,  105;  native  states, 
46;  population,  2,  38,  40,  45, 
46,  105;  Portuguese  posses- 
sions, 38;  railroads,  18;  rain- 
fall, 11;  religions,  91,  228; 
river  volumes,  6,  7;  schools, 
176;  Telugu  mission,  172; 
taxation,  37,  49;  towns,  2; 
villages,  2 

Steam  engine,  44,  143 

Stereopticon  service,  170 

Stone  ages  of  India,  32 

Subsidized  state,  4 

Sub-sudras,  79,  80 

Sudras,  79,  80 

Sunday-school,  194 

Sunnite,  sect  of  INIohammedans, 
104 

Susa,  34 

Sutras,  the,  109 

Suttee,  236 

Swain,  Clara  A.,  M.D.,  184 

Sweden,  39 

Sweepers,  80,  206 

Syrian  Christians,  132 

Table-land  of  central  and 
southern  India,4,  see  also 
Deccan,  the 

Taj  Mahal,  37 

Taiaings,  the,  100 

Tamerlane,  see  Timur 

Tamil  language,  64,  3  37;  liter- 
ature, 65,  136 

Tan  j  ore,  136, 137 

Tantras,  the,  109 


Tapti,  7 

Tartary,  36 

Taxation,  37,  45,  49,  50 

Taylor,  William,  159 

Teak,  16 

Telegraph,  43,  44 

Telugu  language,  first  used,  137; 

mission,  159, 172, 173 
Temperature,  19-22 
Temple  girls,  77 
Teutons,  61 
Thana,  17 

Thoburn,  Isabella,  161 
Thomason,  Thomas,  157 
Tibet,  5,  6,  7,  92,  98,  234 
Tibeto-Burman  people,  32,  62, 

234 
Timur,  36       * 
Tinnevelli,  136,  157,  158 
Tocat,  149 
Tod,  Wilham,  158 
Tomb  of  Akbar  at  Agra,  37 
Toronto  University,  192 
Torture, voluntary,  of  devotees, 

116,   117,   120-122 
Total  abstinence  in  Orient,  159 
Towns,  2,  68,  184 
Tract  Societv,  180 
Tracts,  142,  i50,  180, 186 
Trade  winds,  9 
Traffic,  on  rivers,  7,  8 
Tranquebar,  39,  135,  137 
Transmigration,  99,  106,  112 
Travancore,  61,  158 
Treasures,  13,  14 
Trichinopoli,  137 
Truthfulness,     in     Buddhist 

teaching  and  practice,  102 
Tucker,  Charlotte  Maria,  161 

United  Provinces,  12,  46,47,  93 
United  States,  2,  3,  12,  15,  49, 

145,  155,  218 
Universities,    government,   67, 

178,  192 

Vaisyas,  79 

Vedas,  53,  95;  separate  parts 

of,  109 
Vernacular,  mission  and  press, 

68 ;  schools,  146 


Index 


291 


Viceroy  of  India,  1,  45,  46; 
Legislative  Council,  231 

Victoria, Queen,  made  Empress 
of  India,  45 

Villages,  2,  23,  68,  184;  person- 
ages in  2,  69;  preaching  in 
141,  170 

Vindhya  Mountains,  5,  36 

Vishnu,  113 

Wahahi,sect  of  Mohammedans, 

104 
Ward,  William,  157 
Wealth   of    India,    13,    71;    of 

English-speaking    peoples, 

53 
Weapons,  early,  32 
Wellesley,  Lord,  43 
West  Indies,  10 
West,  the,  see  Occident,  the 
Western  Ghats,  5,  11 
Western  India,   38,   157,    159, 

245 
V/heat  and  flour,  17,  70 
Widow-burning,     37,     76,     77, 

144,  236 
Widows,  see  Hindu  widows 
Wilson,  John,  157,  233 
Witchcraft,  96,   106 
Wives,   under  native  religions 

and  usages,   72-77,   207-209 
Wolfe,  General,  40 
Women    converts,     231,     232; 

mission     workers,     149-152, 

154-157,  160,  161,  171,  227; 

physicians,  183, 184,  227 


Women  of  India,  66,  171 ;  as 
affected  by  the  non-Chris- 
tian religions  and  customs, 
72-77,  102,  119,  207-209, 
236;  as  reached  by  mission- 
ary agencies,  161,  171,  172, 
175,  176,  183,  184,  225,  227, 
231 

World's  Parliament  of  Reli- 
gions, 231 

Wrongs  abolished,  43,  48,  49, 
143,  235,  236 

Xavier,  Francis,  133,  134 

Yale  University,  192 

Yanaon,  40 

Yoma  ranges,  5 

Young  Men's  Christian  Associ- 
ation, 191-193;  186;  fields, 
191 ;  192 ;  hearty  recognition 
and  support,    191-193 

Young  Men's  Hindu  Associa- 
tion, 215 

Young  People's  Society  of 
Christian    Endeavor,     194 

Young  people's  work,  193,  194 

Young    Women's    Christian 
Association,  194 

Zenana,  the,  74,  183 
Ziegenbalg,  Danish  missionary, 

136 
Zoroaster,  94 
Zoroastrianism,  94 


The   Forward   Mission  Study   Courses 


''Anywhere,  provided  it  be  forward." — David  Livingstone 


Prepared  under  the  auspices  of  the 

YOUNG  PEOPLE'S  MISSIONARY  MOVEMENT 

Executive  Committee: — Harry  Wade  Hicks,  S.  Earl 
Taylor,  John  W.  Wood,  F.  P.  Haggard,  T.  H.  P.  Sailer. 


The  Forward  Mission  Study  Courses  are  an  outgrowth 
of  a  conference  of  leaders  in  Young  People's  Mission 
Work,  held  in  New  York  City,  December,  1901.  To 
meet  the  need  that  was  manifested  at  that  conference 
for  Mission  Study  Text-books  suitable  for  young 
people,  two  of  the  delegates.  Professor  Amos  R.  Wells, 
of  the  United  Society  of  Christian  Endeavor,  and  Mr.  S. 
Earl  Taylor,  Chairman  of  the  General  Missionary  Com- 
mittee of  the  Ep worth  League,  projected  the  Forward 
Mission  Study  Courses.  These  courses  have  been 
officially  adopted  by  the  Young  People's  Missionary 
Movement,  and  are  now  under  the  immediate  direction 
of  the  Executive  Committee  of  the  Movement,  which 
consists  of  the  young  people's  secretaries,  or  other 
official  representatives  of  twelve  of  the  leading  mis- 
sionary boards  of  the  United  States  and  Canada. 

The  aim  is  to  publish  a  series  of  text-books  covering 
the  various  home  and  foreign  mission  fields,  and  written 
by  leading  authorities  with  special  reference  to  the 
needs  of  young  people.  The  entire  series  when  com- 
pleted will  comprise  perhaps  as  many  as  twenty  text- 


books.  A  general  account  will  be  given  of  some  of  the 
smaller  countries,  such  as  Japan,  Korea,  and  Turkey; 
but,  for  the  larger  fields,  as  China,  Africa,  and  India, 
the  general  account  will  be  supplemented  by  a  series  of 
biographies  of  the  principal  missionaries  connected  with 
the  country.  The  various  home  mission  fields  will  also 
be  treated  both  biographically  and  historically. 

The  following  text-books  have  been  published: — 

1.  The  Price  of  Africa.  (Biographical.)  By  S.  Earl 
Taylor. 

2.  Into  All  the  Worldo  A  General  Survey  of  Missions. 
By  Amos  R.  Wells. 

3.  Princely  Men  in  the  Heavenly  Kingdom.  (Biographical.) 
By  Harlan  P.  Beach,  M.A.,  F.R.G.S. 

4.  Child  Life  in  Mission  Lands.  A  Course  of  Study  for 
Junior  Societies.     By  Ralph  E.  Diffendorfer. 

5.  Sunrise  in  the  Sunrise  Kingdom.  A  Study  of  Japan. 
By  the  Rev.  John  H.  De  Forest,  D.D. 

6.  Heroes  of  the  Cross  in  America.  Home  Missions.  (Bio- 
graphical.)    By  Don  O.  Sheltcn. 

7.  Daybreak  in  the  Dark  Continent.  A  Study  of  Africa. 
By  Wilson  S.  Naylor. 

8.  The  Christian  Conquest  of  India.  A  Study  of  India. 
By  Bishop  James  M.  Thobum. 

9.  Aliens  or  Americans?  A  Study  of  Immigration.  By 
Rev.  Howard  B   Grose,  Pn.  D. 

These  books  are  published  by  mutual  arrangement 
among  the  denominational  publishing  houses,  to  whom 
all  orders  should  be  addressed.  They  are  bound  uni- 
formly, and  are  sold  for  50  cents,  in  cloth,  and  35  cents, 
in  paper,  postage  extra. 


Study  classes  desiring  more  advanced  text-books  are 
referred  to  the  admirable  series  published  by  the  Inter- 


denominational  Committee  of  the  Woman's  Boards. 
The  volumes  already  published  are : — 

Via  Christi.  A  Study  of  Missions  before  Carey.  By 
Louise  Manning  Hodgkins. 

Lux  Christi.  A  Study  of  Missions  in  India.  By  Caroline 
Atwater  Mason. 

Rex  Christus.  A  Study  of  Missions  in  China.  By  Rev. 
Arthur  H.  Smith,  D.D. 

Dux  Christus.  A  Study  of  Missions  in  Japan.  By  Rev. 
W.  E.  Griffis,  D.D. 

Christus  Liberator.  A  Study  of  Missions  in  Africa.  By 
Ellen  C.  Parsons. 

Christus  Redemptor.  A  Study  of  the  Island  World,  By 
Helen  Barrett  Montgomery. 


POLITICAL  MAP  OF  INDIA  SHOWING  CHRISTIAN    MISSION   STATIONS 


DATE  DUE 

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Princeton  Theological  Seminary-Speer  Library 


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